The Sunni-Shia divide has fueled conflict and rivalry throughout the Middle East for centuries

The ancient succession drama that led to the Sunni-Shia divide

The split that divided Islam into its major branches comes down to succession: after Muhammad's death, Sunnis backed an elected leader, Abu Bakr, while Shia Muslims sided with a member of Muhammad's bloodline, his cousin and son-in-law Ali. That 7th-century disagreement shapes geopolitics today, Ramadan's traditions, and communities worldwide.

The 1979 Iranian Revolution inspired other Islamist movements and alarmed Sunni governments

By establishing the world's first modern Islamic theocracy, the revolution inspired Islamist movements across the region and alarmed Sunni Arab governments. The resulting rivalry between Shia Iran and Sunni Saudi Arabia has since fueled proxy conflicts in Lebanon, Iraq, Syria, and Yemen that persist today.

The Middle East's cold war, explained

The Middle East is one of the most complex regions in the world, including a complicated web of conflicts and actors. Two countries, Saudi Arabia and Iran, have torn apart the region by supporting opposing sides in other countries and indirectly...

A podcast dramatization of the schism that split Islam into Sunni and Shia

The events following Muhammad's death were a bitter succession dispute that divided Islam into its two major branches. You can relive them in this dramatic narrative from the Conflicted History podcast, which provides an immersive entry point into the issue.

Mapping the Middle East showing Sunni and Shia populations by country

France24's interactive visualization shows where each branch of Islam predominates across the region, from Iran's Shia majority to Saudi Arabia's Sunni dominance. The map helps make Middle Eastern politics (and conflicts) more legible.

See how the rivalry between Iran and Israel has remade the Middle East

This 2025 documentary explores how the relationship between Iran, Israel, and the United States has shaped Middle Eastern geopolitics for decades. The film covers events leading up to and following the 2025 12-day war involving these nations.

Timeline: the Middle East conflict

During the First World War, Western and Arab powers negotiated the future political status of Arab lands. Since WWI, a complex history of political, economic, and social events have fueled tension and violence between Israel and Palestine. This timeline, compiled by Al Jazeera, highlights important global events defining conflict in the Middle East from 1915 to 2007.

A survey of armed conflict in the Middle East

The decade following the Arab Spring has been one of bloodshed and violence in the Middle East. In 2011, protests in Tunisia, Egypt, Yemen, and Libya led to infighting and political fragmentation. Civil wars, foreign interventions, and the rise of...

Hear how the US and Iran went from close allies to bitter adversaries after the 1979 revolution.

Could water scarcity cause future wars in the Middle East?

The MENA region is facing a looming water crisis that could lead to future conflicts. While water scarcity isn't new in the Middle East, the region is among the most water scarce in the world. Home to only 1% of the world's fresh water...

The Sykes-Picot agreement as seen through Arab eyes

After WWI, the borders of the Middle East were redrawn by two men: Mark Sykes (UK) and Francois Picot (France). Signed in 1916, their secret agreement divided one of the most volatile regions in the world into states, cutting through ethnic and...

An interactive map tracking conflict in the Middle East

Conflict and peace in the Middle East are constantly in flux. Decision-makers need up-to-date developments – both within individual countries and across the greater MENA region – to identify trends and risks of violence, and opportunities for...

A report found that the 2026 Iran war is the largest oil supply disruption in history.

Is there an arms race in the Middle East?

In 2021, countries in the Middle East spent $168 billion on weapons. Defense spending in the Middle East has been falling in the last few years, but this doesn’t necessarily mean that the region is de-militarizing. In 2021, Saudi Arabia spent $55...

History shows what’s wrong with the idea that war is ‘normal’ in the Middle East

An old trope claims that war is ‘normal’, innate, and inevitable in the Middle East. However, the history of the region reveals complex and civilized systems of coexistence. Empires found economic and political strength in fostering diversity;...

The final war between the Persian and Byzantine empires

The Arab conquests of the seventh century, which swept over Egypt, Syria, and Mesopotamia, were made possible by a catastrophic generation-long war between the Byzantine and Persian Empires. That war, in turn, was the last act in a struggle that had gone on for centuries, and shaped the whole subsequent history of the Middle East.

Iraq invaded Iran in 1980, drawing the new Islamic Republic into a devastating eight-year war

Just a year after the revolution, Saddam Hussein invaded Iran, hoping to exploit its post-revolutionary instability. The brutal conflict killed hundreds of thousands in one of the century's deadliest conflicts and forced Khomeini's government to consolidate power.

The 1967 war was the first use of oil as a geopolitical weapon

Following the June 1967 Arab–Israeli war, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iraq, Libya, and Algeria embargoed oil shipments to the US, UK, and West Germany. While the move did not have a large impact, it reshaped global oil flows, and foreshadowed OAPEC's later actions.

Iran's Revolutionary Guard Corps became one of the most powerful forces in the Middle East

Created after the 1979 revolution to protect the new Islamic Republic, the IRGC grew into a force that controls Iran's ballistic missile arsenal, funds, and arms regional proxy groups such as Hezbollah and Hamas, and answers directly to the supreme leader.

Ramadan moon-sighting can spark intra-family disputes

Because different communities—and even different members of the same family—follow different methods for confirming the crescent, Ramadan doesn't always start on the same day for everyone. The result: "moon wars" that pit parents against children, and mosques against each other, on when exactly the fast begins.

Iran's 1979 revolution sparked a second oil shock—and reconfigured global energy markets.

The rise of ISIS, explained in 6 minutes

The Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) is incredibly powerful, and has seemingly done the impossible. The group has seized vast areas of the Middle East to form a mini-state it calls a reincarnation of the ancient Caliphate. Since forming, ISIS has waged war with all of its neighbors and has launched deadly terror attacks all over the world. This six-minute video, by Vox, outlines the history and rise of ISIS.

Ayatollah Khomeini led the ideological opposition to the Shah from exile

Exiled in 1964 for opposing a law that granted diplomatic immunity to US military personnel in Iran, Khomeini built a large following by smuggling recorded sermons into Iran on cassette tapes. He aimed to replace the monarchy with an Islamic republic governed by religious law.

The 1973 oil embargo by OPEC inspired advances in alternative energy technology

The shortages imposed by the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) created a global energy crisis and economic instability after the Arab-Israeli War. This led to investments in green technologies and improvements in automobile fuel efficiency and manufacturing.

Israel’s swift victory in the Six-Day War redrew the map of the Middle East

Learn more about the June 1967 conflict which shifted territorial lines across Israel and its neighbors—Egypt, Jordan, Syria, and Iraq—reshaping the Middle East’s political landscape with long-lasting geopolitical ramifications.

How the Arab Spring engulfed the Middle East – and changed the world

The Arab Spring engulfed the Middle East, unleashing consequences that still shape the world today. In 2011, the Arab Spring began with protests in a small Tunisian city. Those protests led to an era of uprisings and civil war in the Arab world,...

The Seven Sisters were a dominant midcentury Western oil consortium

Amid the fallout of World War II, Western multinational corporations expanded their control of the production of oil across the oil-rich Middle East, earning the pejorative nickname of the Seven Sisters. In the 1970s, the group’s role diminished as nationalist movements pursued sovereign control of the oil.

OPEC's 1973 embargo sparked the first global energy shock.

Oil's legacy: fueling industrial growth and shaping imperial strategies

This episode of The Rest Is History podcast traces oil's pivotal role—from fueling industrial growth to steering imperial power. It also examines how access to oil shaped US politics, World War II, and sparked the creation of OPEC following the Suez Crisis.

Timeline: the Kurds’ quest for independence

The Kurds have a long history of fighting for rights and regional autonomy across the Middle East. After WWI, when the Middle East was reconfigured, the Kurds were dispersed across the new borders of previous Ottoman territories. The idea of an...

The US and the USSR backed opposing sides in dozens of proxy wars during the Cold War

To avoid direct confrontation, the superpowers supported rival factions in conflicts around the world—including in Korea, Vietnam, Angola, and Afghanistan.

As oil revenues decline, many Gulf States are investing in professional sports through sovereign wealth funds

Gulf States—including the United Arab Emirates, Qatar, and Saudi Arabia—have invested tens of billions of dollars in professional sports, owning high-profile soccer clubs like Paris Saint-Germain and Manchester City. Many of these investments have been characterized as an increase in these countries' soft power, or global cultural influence, in Western countries, where the Middle East remains relatively misunderstood.

Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi ruled Iran for nearly four decades before being ousted by the revolution

The last Shah of Iran came to power in 1941 and pursued rapid Westernization through his controversial reforms. His authoritarian rule, backed by the US, and his feared secret police, SAVAK, fueled mass resentment that ultimately drove him from power in 1979.

Decades of instability in the Middle East gave rise to al-Qaida.

'Velayat-e faqih' is the religious doctrine that has governed Iran since the 1979 revolution

Meaning "guardianship of the Islamic jurist," the doctrine transfers all political and religious authority to the Shia clergy, with the supreme leader holding ultimate power over the state. Developed by Khomeini in the 1970s, it has served as the foundation of Iran's government since the revolution.

Trace the rise of oil: from early drilling to today’s global power

This animated map video vividly illustrates how petroleum shaped global politics and industry—from 18th-century uses and 19th-century drilling booms in North America to today’s OPEC strategies, shale revolution, and geopolitical oil influence.

See a timeline of the events that shaped the Iranian Revolution

From a defamatory newspaper editorial that sparked protests in January 1978 to Khomeini's return from exile and the Shah's flight from Iran in 1979, this timeline traces the rapidly escalating chain of events—protests, crackdowns, and political collapses—that toppled one of the Middle East's most powerful monarchies.

Ayatollah Khamenei ruled Iran for 36 years after succeeding Khomeini as Supreme Leader

When Khomeini died in 1989, Ali Khamenei was appointed acting supreme leader on the same day. He served in this position until his death in February 2026, shaping Iran for nearly four decades.

Oil shocks, war, and the 1970s crisis that remade American energy and economics

The oil crises of the 1970s—fueled by Middle East conflict and OPEC's dominance—triggered inflation, price controls, and policy failure. But they also accelerated fracking, alternative energy, and the rise of free-market economics.

Why have gas prices surged nearly 27% since the Iran war began?

Oil passing through the Strait of Hormuz makes up only about 7% of US crude imports. However, crude oil prices account for 51% of the cost of a gallon of gas in the US. US refiners pay the Brent crude futures price, even for domestic drilling.

CIA factbook on the Middle East

The CIA’s World Factbook provides a comprehensive overview of 19 Middle Eastern nations. A wide range of background information is provided for: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bahrain, the Gaza Strip, Georgia, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon,...

Beyond oil, the Iran war has pushed up costs on fertilizer, prescriptions, and mortgages.

Iran-Iraq war drained over $1T from the combined economies of Iran and Iraq

Across eight years (1980-88), Iran and Iraq each lost about $500 B in GDP, infrastructure destruction, military expenses, disrupted oil exports, and mounting debt—totaling over $1 T in economic damage.

Iranians voted overwhelmingly to establish an Islamic Republic in March 1979

Just weeks after Khomeini's return, Iran held a national referendum to replace the monarchy with an Islamic Republic, and over 98% voted in favor (though the vote was criticized). The vote formalized the revolution's outcome, laying the foundation for a theocratic government that remains in place today.

Explore a map of Medieval Europe, which was a patchwork of hundreds of competing states.

Lessons from the 1973 energy crisis still echo in today’s geopolitical battles over oil

The video from the Economist highlights how energy supply disruptions can be weaponized—just as in 1973, today’s gas cutoffs (Russia throttling supplies to Europe after their invasion of Ukraine) reveal the ongoing importance of strategic energy resilience.

Ramadan is a major television event in the Middle East

Each year, major networks air special 30-episode dramas timed to the month—one episode per night after iftar. Syrian productions long dominated the format, though that has shifted. The season is the advertising event of the year across the Middle East, rivaling the Super Bowl in commercial intensity.

Countries with either very low or very high religious diversity tend to be more peaceful

Research found a correlation between a country's relative stability and whether it has either very low or very high levels of religious diversity. Countries in the middle range—with moderate diversity and active competition between groups—show higher levels of conflict.

Mohammad Mosaddegh was ousted in a CIA-backed coup in 1953

Iran's democratically elected prime minister, Mosaddegh, nationalized the country's oil industry in 1951, challenging British and American control of Iran's resources. The CIA and British intelligence orchestrated a coup that ousted him and reinstated the Shah, fueling decades of Iranian distrust of the West.

Why the First Gulf War occurred—and how it played out

This video navigates the conflict’s core—from Iraq's August 2, 1990 invasion of Kuwait through Operation Desert Shield’s buildup, to the decisive air and ground assault of January–February 1991. It spotlights coalition tactics and rapid liberation of Kuwait, highlighting how precision bombing and advanced tech reshaped modern warfare.