East Asian records of auroras may date back to 10,000 BCE

The scientific name for northern lights came from two Greco-Roman gods

Although cave paintings may have depicted them millennia earlier, one of the oldest known references to auroras is a Babylonian cuneiform tablet from about 600 BCE. In 1619, Galileo Galilei named the phenomenon in the northern hemisphere "aurora borealis" after the Roman goddess of dawn—Aurora—and the Greek god of the north wind—Boreas.

In 2025, astronomers confirmed that Neptune has auroras, which were observed at mid-latitudes because its magnetic field is tilted 47 degrees from its rotation axis.

The intensity of auroral activity approximately follows the sun's 11-year cycle

The density, speed, and temperature of material ejected by the sun are at their lowest at the start of each cycle, resulting in weaker interactions with Earth's magnetic field and muted, diffuse auroras. While the average solar wind speed is about 300 kilometers (186 miles) per second, the fastest winds can be more than three times faster.

The strongest recorded geomagnetic storm in history created auroras near the equator

On Sept. 1, 1859, the Carrington Event—named after the astronomer who observed the preceding solar flare—saw a massive coronal mass ejection strike Earth, disrupting telegraph systems, sparking electrical fires, and reportedly illuminating the night sky enough to allow newspapers to be read at night.

Scientists quantify how far from the poles auroras will be visible using the G-scale

The Geomagnetic Storm scale indicates the expected severity of the deformation of Earth's magnetic field based on the amount of energy injected by the solar wind. Solar activity is monitored using various satellites to forecast these storms, which can also be used to anticipate damage and disruption to power systems, radio communications, and satellite navigation.

See the 25 of the best photos of auroras from around the world.

Interactions between solar storms and Earth's magnetic field create auroras

Solar storms on the Sun's surface produce clouds of electrically charged particles, some of which make their way to Earth. Those trapped in Earth's magnetic field accelerate toward the north and south poles, colliding with atmospheric atoms and molecules in the process, which produces light.

Coronal mass ejections and solar flares produce the most extensive auroras

The most intense geomagnetic storms are produced when massive clouds of plasma—ionized gas—are expelled from the sun's upper atmosphere and interact with the Earth's magnetic field. These storms expand where auroras are bright enough to be seen to regions farther from the poles, particularly during peak periods of the sun's 11-year intensity cycle.

High solar activity can produce pink and purple auroras

Although less common, energetic enough charged particles from the sun that descend to an altitude of about 100 kilometers (62 miles) can strike a mixture of ionized and neutral nitrogen molecules, causing them to emit red and blue light, which our eyes perceive as purple.

The impacts of the solar maximum on Earth, from telecommunications to auroras

During the peak of the sun's 11-year cycle, plasma emissions stronger than the average stream of particles from the sun can compress and distort the Earth's magnetic field, allowing auroras to be seen farther from the poles. Distortions in the ionized layer of Earth's atmosphere can also alter the path of communication transmissions through the air. (Some readers may experience a paywall.)

The best location to view auroras is within the auroral oval

Earth's magnetic field pushes trapped particles from the solar wind toward the planet's magnetic poles, where they can descend and collide with atmospheric gases in a ring located between 60 and 75 degrees of latitude. Auroras can also be viewed at lower latitudes—the sub-auroral oval and solar storm zones—if the sun produces powerful solar storms.

Crackling, popping, and rustling sounds have been reported during auroras

At the altitudes where auroras take place—between 100 and 300 kilometers (62 to 186 miles)—air is not dense enough to efficiently vibrate and carry sound waves to the ground. However, one theory suggests that the geomagnetic energy behind auroras can trigger electrical discharges near the surface, which may be the cause of reported sounds.

Auroras take place all day long, but are too faint to see during the day

Because the sun constantly emits charged particles into the solar system, Earth's magnetic field deflects them continuously, with a small subset becoming trapped and colliding with atmospheric gases. Daylight, light pollution, and weather prevent the northern and southern lights from being seen most of the time, even for those at higher latitudes.

View historical records of solar observations and discoveries, from telescopes in the early 1600s revealing sunspots to NASA's Parker Solar Probe photographing the sun from within its outer corona in 2025.

Rare chance for US states to see Northern Lights

A solar storm in July 2023 offered people in 17 American states, as well as Canada, an unusual chance to witness the Northern Lights, or aurora borealis. The 11-year solar cycle, reaching its peak in 2024, made the lights visible in places further south than usual. Read up on the announcement from the Geophysical Institute at the University of Alaska at Fairbanks here.

Aurora-related activities drive significant tourism in regions near the Arctic Circle

As the peak solar cycle approached from late 2024 to early 2026, airlines serving countries such as Iceland, Finland, and Canada increased their scheduled flights, with direct flights to Tromsø, Norway, doubling since 2018. The northern lights tourism market has grown about 10% per year and is expected to increase from $941.9M in 2024 to $1.648B in 2030.

NASA's James Webb Space Telescope captures enormous aurora displays on Jupiter

The auroras flicker faster and brighter than those seen on Earth. This contrasts with earlier predictions that the lights would fade slowly over several minutes, providing insights into how Jupiter's magnetosphere operates.

View a gallery of various auroral shapes

Auroras can be generally classified as discrete (well-defined shapes) or diffuse (hazy shapes), with light taking various forms, including curtains, arcs, pillars, and rays. Some auroras can also pulsate, particularly after intense periods of auroral activity are winding down.

Aurora borealis and auroras australis do not always mirror one another

While the Earth's magnetic field is symmetric across the magnetic north and south poles in isolation, charged particles from the sun distort the field. If the angle of impact between the wave of particles and the Earth's field is such that the distortions are uneven, dissimilar geomagnetic storms and resulting auroras are produced in the northern and southern hemispheres.

Solar activity and the density and chemical composition of the air affect auroral colors

Oxygen atoms can emit red and green light when energized by collisions with the solar wind, but red takes longer to be emitted and is disrupted by bumping into other molecules. This causes red light to appear at higher altitudes, where the air is less dense. Higher-energy solar wind can penetrate to lower altitudes and collide with more abundant ionized nitrogen, which produces blue light.

Voids in the northern and southern lights are known as black auroras

Appearing as dark rings or blobs against the illuminated sky, black auroras occur when there are holes in Earth's ionosphere—the upper atmospheric layer of charged particles created by solar ultraviolet rays. In these gaps—also known as anti-auroras—electrons ascend up into space, rather than spiraling into the atmosphere to collide with atmospheric gases and produce light.

Scientists have tested atmospheric models by firing rockets into the aurora borealis

Functioning like components of a CT scan, the missiles transmit signals that can be used to identify charged particles and electromagnetic currents in slices. The slices are then combined to construct a computer-based model of Earth's atmospheric structure, which is used to compare the accuracy of physics-based models.

A basic camera setup or a phone is enough to capture stunning aurora photos

Auroras result from solar particles interacting with atmospheric elements. This article provides tips on improving the quality of aurora photos taken with simple equipment and the best times and locations to yield better photos.

Planeterrellas create artificial auroras that mimic the atmospheric displays of light by setting up an electric field between two metal balls in a jar filled with a small amount of air.

Aurora-like magenta streaks across the sky may not be auroras

The phenomenon, known as STEVE (Strong Thermal Emission Velocity Enhancement), has only been observed alongside auroras. Rather than light emitted by gases energized by collisions with ionized particles from the sun, STEVE is a high-velocity, high-temperature stream of particles that glows. (Some readers may experience a paywall.)

The Ancient Chinese harnessed solar power for heating and cooling 6,000 years ago

Neolithic Chinese homes faced south for winter sun warmth, while overhangs shielded them from high summer sun. These efforts also influenced urban planning, with cities aligning streets east-west for optimal solar exposure.

The sun and Earth's liquid outer core help create the northern and southern lights

Earth's magnetosphere, generated by the movement of molten iron deep within the planet, consists of a magnetic field that deflects charged particles north and south. Some of the particles released by the sun in the solar wind become trapped in this field and are propelled toward the poles, where they produce auroras through collisions with atmospheric particles.

Could the world's largest solar storm happen again?

In 1859, the world witnessed the most intense solar storm in recorded history. The electromagnetic deluge of dust and gas lit up the night sky and sparked fires, disrupting Earth's magnetic field and putting on a show for the millions. If a storm with a similar intensity today occurred, scientists believe it would be catastrophic for our communications systems. Learn what would happen if the Carrington Event happened again here.

An exoplanet detection method involves measuring a host star's auroras

Astronomers have reported indirectly identifying a planet by observing its debris interacting with the magnetic field of the star it orbits. The interaction is a larger-scale version of the auroras observed on Jupiter, which are produced when material released by its moon, Io, interacts with the gas giant's magnetic field.

Except for Mercury, every planet in the solar system experiences auroras

Lacking magnetic fields, Venus and Mars exhibit auroras when the solar wind collides directly with their atmospheres, without deflection. Some particles behind the atmospheric collisions that generate auroras on gas giants come from their moons and the surrounding environments.

Explore a guide to photographing auroras

Using a wide aperture and increasing your camera's native ISO to a value between 3200 and 8000, depending on atmospheric conditions, will help capture as much light as possible while freezing the movement of the auroras. The camera should also be kept as still as possible and in environments with minimal weather impediments, such as clouds.

According to the Greek historian Herodotus, the first person to successfully predict a solar eclipse was the Greek philosopher Thales of Miletus in 585 BCE, with the resulting celestial event ending a half-decade-long war.

The earliest record of dream interpretation dates to Ancient Sumer, an analysis of a Sumerian priest king's dream around 2700 BCE.

Perseverance captures an aurora on Mars

The Perseverance rover captured the first visible Martian aurora, offering insights into Mars's atmospheric interactions. A coronal mass ejection likely triggered the aurora since the planet lacks a global magnetic field.

Human records of influenza stretch back more than two millennia

Accounts of flu-like illness appear as early as 412 BCE, when Hippocrates described a sudden wave of cough and fever. Centuries of recurring outbreaks culminated in the first clearly documented pandemic in 1580, spreading from Asia into Europe and Africa.

Human records of influenza stretch back more than two millennia

Accounts of flu-like illness appear as early as 412 BCE, when Hippocrates described a sudden wave of cough and fever. Centuries of recurring outbreaks culminated in the first clearly documented pandemic in 1580, spreading from Asia into Europe and Africa.

Watch a 4K time-lapse of auroras seen from the International Space Station

The video was created from 711 photos taken by European Space Agency astronaut Paolo Nespoli on Sept. 15, 2017, as part of the Vitality, Innovation, Technology, and Ability mission.

Explore a gallery of astronomical images curated by the European Space Agency, which includes illustrations and images of aurorae, planets, stars, galaxies, stellar nurseries, exoplanets, and black holes.

Food allergies were first documented more than 4,000 years ago.

Auroral myths include Valkyries, firefoxes, and torchlight from giants fishing at night

In Norse mythology, the light displays were considered reflections from the Valkyries' armor as the female warriors brought the souls of heroes to Valhalla. In Finland, firefoxes were thought to move so fast that they created sparks in the sky as their tails brushed against mountains.

Understanding ball lightning remains an area of active research

Observations of glowing orbs of light that appear during or after thunderstorms have been documented since at least the 12th century, but their rarity and short lifetimes have made their study challenging. Some theories suggest they form when lightning vaporizes pockets of gases in the air or certain materials on the ground.

New Year's Eve celebrations date back to ancient Babylon

Rather than celebrating in winter, the Babylonians honored the vernal equinox, a day in late March with equal amounts of darkness and light that signaled the start of a new year. They celebrated with Akitu, an 11-day festival.

Over thousands of years, the frequency of solar eclipses is greatest around the Arctic and Antarctic Circles and lowest near the equator.

Scientists can determine Earth's past climate conditions by analyzing air trapped in microscopic bubbles within ice cores—columns of compressed snow layers that build up over hundreds of thousands of years.

Four astronomical discoveries from ancient Greece

Modern astronomy relies on making discoveries without being present on the planets, stars, galaxies, and other objects studied. Imagine the difficulty the ancient Greeks had studying them without computers and telescopes. Yet somehow they calculated precise measurements of planetary distances, sizes, and more. Read this page to learn more about early triumphs in astronomical science.

Early timekeeping tools included sundials, water clocks, and astrolabes

Astrolabes also provided a person's latitude based on the height of the stars in the sky, thus aiding in navigation. Incense and candle clocks relied on the constant burning rate of fire to track the passage of time based on premarked locations with equal-interval spacing.

Scientists can determine Earth's past environmental conditions by analyzing sediment cores—accumulated layers of mud and remains of charcoal, pollen, plants, algae, and other organic material.

Cosmic rays are evidence of incredibly powerful astronomical events—solar cosmic rays provide information about eruptions and flares on the sun's surface, while galactic cosmic rays shed light on dying stars.

Humans have speculated about alien life since ancient times

Around 50 B.C.E., Roman poet and philosopher Lucretius shared the idea that alien life was possible, which was put forth by Greek philosopher Epicurus. The writing is believed to be the first straightforward assertion in Western literature that aliens must exist.

While solar eclipses were considered ominous throughout history, multiple cultures explained the celestial event as the result of mythical creatures nearly consuming the sun.