Plastic's history began with an inventor seeking a $10,000 prize offer

How billiard balls catalyzed the 'Plastics Century'

For centuries, billiard balls were made of ivory from elephant tusks. But when excessive hunting caused elephant populations to decline, they began to look for alternatives: celluloid, which would become known as the first plastic.

The history of natural and synthetic plastics

From cheap toys to woolly jumpers, plastic can be found in more products than many people realize. From a chemist's perspective all these things are made of the same class of materials: Polymers. And the distinction between which ones we happen to call "plastics" and which ones we don't is fairly arbitrary.

How nylon was created

Nylon, one of the most ubiquitous materials in the world, was invented in 1935. Chemist Wallace Carothers was hired by American conglomerate DuPont to perform research. After seven years of work he produced nylon, the first wholly synthetic fabric. Carothers’ life ended tragically, but his contributions revolutionized everything from military equipment to women’s fashion.

How plastic manufacturing could be sustainable again

From polymers to nurdles, learn how plastic is created and what we can do to slow the lasting repercussions this material will have on both our planet and our lives.

Henry Ford built a plastic car from soybeans in 1941

To pursue his goal of marrying industry with agriculture, among other reasons, the automobile giant oversaw the design and creation of a vehicle with 12 panels made from plastic. At 2,000 pounds, the car was much lighter than all-steel ones, but production stopped during World War II.

Many plastic products are molded from melted pellets called nurdles, which are made from ethylene and propylene extracted from crude oil.

Despite being derived from crude oil, which itself comes from organic material, synthetic plastic isn't biodegradable because it hasn't existed long enough for microbes to have developed mechanisms to break it down.

How chemical recycling could create 'infinite' plastic

The way we normally recycle plastics is a downward spiral of waste and degraded materials, but there is another option—turning plastic back into the oil it was made from.

The plastics industry spent decades promoting recycling while privately doubting it would ever work

This FRONTLINE investigation reveals that plastic makers publicly championed recycling for years despite internal doubts about its viability, and that no more than 10% of the plastic ever produced has been recycled.

The prevalence of microplastics came from plastic’s affordability and versatility

Microplastics' durability and overuse have led to massive pollution that overwhelms the planet's ecosystems. Avian, terrestrial, and marine life have been observed to contain microplastics in their bodies, but reverting to paper, cotton, and other materials in manufacturing also brings environmental challenges.

The first 3D printing patent was filed in 1967

Wyn Swainson, an English literature graduate student, filed a patent in Denmark for a system that scans an object and uses the scanning data to rebuild it using lasers that harden light-sensitive plastic. However, he never developed a working prototype. The idea originated from wanting to produce recreations of sculptures.

How disruptions in oil markets can drive up the price of everyday goods

Most types of plastic are made from polymers derived from chemicals produced by the processing and refining of crude oil and natural gas. Spikes in the cost of either fossil fuel raise the cost of wrappings, tubs, and other plastic containers for products.

Learn about the seven types of plastic, including their recyclability, toxicity, health risks, and common uses.

Most plastics are not biodegradable because breaking their chemical bonds requires temperatures lethal to most microbes, and these organisms have not been exposed to plastic long enough to evolve the necessary enzymes.

The global plastic crisis in images

For decades we have relied on plastics to keep us safe, insulate our homes, and make sure our food stays fresh. But when does plastic's life come to an end?

Japanese scientists have developed an eco-friendly plastic that naturally dissolves in hours, leaving behind molecules containing phosphorus and nitrogen, which fertilize soil.

View a sample of objects surprisingly derived from crude oil, including chewing gum and lipstick

Crude oil processing produces a variety of fuels and the building blocks for plastics, but it also distills out the hydrocarbons used to make aspirin, Teflon, vinyl, crayons, candles, Tupperware, roofing shingles, asphalt pavement, hair dye, anesthetics, food-grade lubricants, polyester, synthetic rubber, and resins for items like dentures.

The history of contact lenses may have begun with Leonardo da Vinci, who developed a concept of vision correction based on placing a substance directly on the eye's surface.

The pharmaceutical industry evolved, in part, from the discovery of synthetic dyes

In 1856, a chemist accidentally discovered mauveine, the world's first synthetic dye, while trying to make quinine to treat malaria. The synthetic dyes that followed helped reveal germs under microscopes, paving the way for modern imaging techniques and breakthrough treatments, such as antibiotics.

When did people start making and using glass?

This article details the search for the ancient origins of glass, a now-common item through which archaeologists can spot histories of trade and innovation. Bronze Age glass was made from crushed quartz instead of sand, and artisans could color glass with materials such as cobalt. These trace metallic add-ons have given scientists a vital clue into the origins of glass, which is currently debated as either Egypt or the Near East.

The history of the iconic Barbie doll

The 1959 debut of the Barbie doll changed the culture of toys permanently, and its many iterations have come to reflect, in a certain way, the aspirations of women around the world. But Barbie's unrealistic looks and plastic substance have prompted...

As of 2023, more than 130 nations have enacted bans or restrictions on plastic items, starting with Bangladesh's ban on plastic bags in 2002.

Here's how the seven types of plastics fare in the recycling process

To help you make better-informed decisions about the products that you buy, here's a simple explanation of the seven different types of plastic, how they differ, and their impact on the environment.

How existing technology could prevent nearly 80% of plastic pollution

More than 28 million tons of plastic enters the environment each year, where it harms animals and damages habitats. A study co-authored by researchers at The Pew Charitable Trusts found that this flow can be reduced by nearly 80% in the next 20 years using existing waste management and recycling technology.

View the estimated decomposition times for various everyday plastic products, which often fragment into smaller microplastics as molecular bonds are weakened by sunlight.

The unexpected origin story of the snow globe

In 1900, a Vienna tradesman named Erwin Perzy I was attempting to invent an inexpensive way to improve light amplification in hospital operating rooms. After experimenting with a glass globe filled with water, the idea for the snow globe struck. Industrious as well as inventive, Perzy eventually turned his idea into a successful business. Read the full article to learn how the invention grew to become recognized globally.

Cyanoacrylate, or superglue, was discovered by accident during World War II when researchers tried to create a clear plastic for precision gunsights.

View a timeline of 3D printing technology through 2019

The first working 3D printing device was invented in 1983 and utilized stereolithography, a process in which a laser triggers a chemical reaction that hardens liquid resin. Powder-based laser sintering technology was patented in 1987, with metal-based powders first being used for 3D printing in 1997.

3D printing has made musical instruments more accessible

Violins fabricated from durable plastic, rather than being built from wood, can cost hundreds of dollars less, allowing children to try them out without financial pressure. They can be made in colors that appeal to children, sizes tailored to their bodies, and with tactile guides to help visually impaired learners.

Pre-coin currencies like shells were subject to counterfeiting

While it is difficult to pinpoint the very earliest form of money that was used, a type of shell called cowrie shells were used as currency as far back as 3300–2000 BCE. These shells were imitated using ivory, bone, clam shells and more.

A step-by-step guide to the plastic recycling process

Everything you wanted to know about how plastic is recycled, the companies that collect and recycle plastic, where you can recycle, and much more.

How Big Oil misled the public into believing plastic would be recycled

An NPR and PBS Frontline investigation reveals how the oil and gas industry used the promise of recycling to sell more plastic, even when they knew it would never work on a large scale.

Learn more about the history of fireworks, which date back to an accidental invention during an alchemist's quest for information about immortality.

The Chumash manufactured shell beads for thousands of years, eventually as money

The practice was unique to the Chumash among North American Indians. Some researchers have made the case theirs was the first use of money on the continent.

The iconic Aztec 'crystal skulls' were 19th-century fakes

The crystal skulls long displayed as Aztec artifacts were actually fabricated in the late 1800s, all linked to French antiquities dealer Eugène Boban. Anthropologist Jane Walsh's investigation exposed their modern origins, overturning a century of mistaken museum lore.

A collective effort from multiple scientists and inventors led to the light bulb

While Thomas Edison's thin carbon filament design made light bulbs commercially viable, prior contributions, such as Joseph Swan's development of the first successful incandescent filament electric lamp, made its eventual invention possible.

Microplastics have been found everywhere there is liquid or vapor water, from the oceans and tropical waters to polar ice and the air we breathe, posing growing risks to wildlife and ecosystems.

How artificial photosynthesis can help make plastics and fuels using sunlight

These systems link a molecular light absorber to a catalyst that can synthesize fuels—such as ethanol—and ethylene, a precursor to plastics, in a carbon-neutral manner. Because these byproducts have greater energy concentrations than the carbohydrates produced by photosynthetic organisms, research is ongoing to engineer the necessary catalysts.

A UN-led treaty may establish rules to phase out plastic globally

With support from more than 175 nations, a treaty led by the United Nations is being negotiated to establish enforceable global rules for plastic production and pollution by 2025. Negotiations come as the total amount of plastic in the ocean has increased by 50% from 2017 to 2022.

Plastic debris across the ocean aids the spread of invasive species

The durable, long-lasting material can serve as a platform for living organisms to latch onto and ride over vast distances. After the 2011 earthquake and tsunami in Japan, a large dock carrying 100 tons of living organisms native to Japan washed up on Oregon's coastline, confirming the ecological threat.

In 1880, Jacques and Pierre Curie discovered that electricity could be produced by striking certain materials—the piezoelectric effect—a phenomenon that is seen in barbecue lighters.

Using AI to track plastic pollution in real time

Explore Global Plastic Watch, the first-ever, near-real-time, high-resolution map of plastic pollution. Global Plastic Watch uses advanced satellite data technology and machine learning to measure piles of plastic waste from space.

The most common type of 3D printer fabricates objects using plastic

At the consumer level, the most common printing method is fused deposition modeling, which builds objects by melting an extruding thermoplastic filament that is deposited in layers. For industrial applications, selective laser sintering, which uses a laser to fuse particles of polymer powder (e.g., nylon), is preferred.

Research shows that over 1,000 metric tons of microplastics fall on national parks every year—equivalent to 120 million bottles of water.

Thomas Edison created the first strand of electric Christmas lights in 1880

Edison strung electric bulbs outside his laboratory in 1880, and his business partner Edward H. Johnson first wrapped a tree in lights in 1882. It wasn’t until the lights were commercialized in 1917 that they became common in household Christmas decorations.

Synthetic opioids: a historical and clinical review

In the 19th century, researchers began synthesizing and isolating poppy plant alkaloids, leading to the invention of morphine, codeine, heroin, oxycodone, and others. These highly addictive variants eventually gave rise to illicit use and a widespread underground market, laying the foundation for the current opioid crisis.

Prosthetics and orthotics have been 3D printed to improve the lives of animals

Shells for hermit crabs, wheelchairs for guinea pigs and dogs, and horseshoes for improved running performance have been created using 3D printers. Other artificial body parts made using this technology include a jaw for a loggerhead turtle, a beak for a toucan, and a tail for an American alligator.

A guide to avoiding single-use plastics

Here’s everything you need to know about the most ubiquitous (and avoidable) kind of plastic waste: single-use plastics, the kind made to be tossed in mere minutes

The original basketball was hand-sewn

When the first basketball landed in a peach basket in 1891, it didn't look like the leather Wilson ball you see on today's NBA courts. The basketball evolved from the nondribbling days, when a hand-sewn ball with stitching like a football was used.

Synthetic textiles and tires account for more than 60% of ocean microplastic pollution, which enters the seas via runoff and wastewater discharge.