In comic books, cosmic rays have been described as capable of accelerating evolution, granting humans superpowers, restoring health and energy, and powering advanced technology.

Cosmic rays are thought to be accelerated to near the speed of light by repeatedly bouncing across shockwaves produced by high-energy cosmic events, such as supernovae.

Some cosmic rays possess energies as high as 100,000,000 teraelectron volts—more than 10 million times the energy of particles accelerated in the Large Hadron Collider.

Cosmic rays are evidence of incredibly powerful astronomical events—solar cosmic rays provide information about eruptions and flares on the sun's surface, while galactic cosmic rays shed light on dying stars.

About 10% of the radiation people are exposed to each year comes from outer space, with higher percentages for those living at higher elevations or who fly often.

Research shows that cosmic rays may trigger the cascade of displaced electrons needed to produce lightning, which is also enabled by pointed ice crystals that create strong electric fields.

Scientists have determined the properties of cosmic rays by analyzing their trajectories in bubble chambers—containers filled with a vapor that clings to charged particles.

If particle accelerators did create black holes by packing tremendous energy into a small volume, then trillions would be created in Earth's atmosphere daily by cosmic rays.

By measuring them in hot-air balloons during a partial solar eclipse and at night, Victor Hess discovered cosmic rays and concluded they came from beyond the solar system.

The hypothetical particle that travels faster than light

Astrophysicists inspired by science fiction developed the theory of the tachyon—a Greek word for "fast"—which is a field or particle hypothetically able to travel faster than light. Although no experiments have confirmed any part of it, it's a fun theory to consider.

Earth's magnetic field, which deflects charged particles, helps protect us from cosmic rays, but the sensitivity of these particles to magnetic fields also makes it difficult for astronomers to determine their sources.

Antimatter was discovered by examining debris from collisions between atmospheric gases and cosmic rays—high-energy matter particles from space.

During a 2013 speed run of 'Super Mario 64,' the protagonist was inexplicably warped up to a new location—a glitch that would later be attributed to a cosmic ray flipping a bit within a byte responsible for tracking Mario's height.

Particle accelerators propel matter toward small targets at high speed

Devices like cathode-ray tube televisions were once basic particle accelerators, but modern ones, such as the Large Hadron Collider, use massive magnetic fields and circular tunnels to achieve energies high enough to recreate the conditions just after the big bang.

Before 1932, when particle accelerators were first used for nuclear research, scientists relied on naturally radioactive substances to advance their understanding of the atomic nucleus.

Scientists can create movies of atomic and molecular phenomena using X-ray free-electron lasers, in which images are produced by matter being struck by high-intensity light created by accelerating electrons.

In an X-ray free-electron laser, electromagnetic fields are used to accelerate and move electrons in wiggling patterns, causing them to emit synchronized, high-energy X-rays. This resulting light beam can strike targets up to 120 times per second to create movies of changing molecular structures and phenomena.

Tom Liggett, a Bournemouth University student, sent sealed photographic film into space using a helium balloon, producing photographs from cosmic rays.

Particles produced in cosmic ray showers that would normally decay long before they reach Earth's surface are observed in ground-based detectors because they experience time more slowly when moving near the speed of light—a phenomenon predicted by special relativity.

Antimatter can be created from dark lightning—high-energy light emitted by deflected electrons after they are accelerated to near the speed of light by thunderstorms.

Cathode-ray tube televisions are examples of electron accelerators

CRT TVs work by converting electricity into heat, which causes electrons to be emitted from the rear of the device in three beams responsible for the colors red, green, and blue. Electromagnets direct electrons to phosphor molecules on the screen, which emit light and illuminate the pixels.

Explore the 1962 comic book that features the debut of Spider-Man, one of the defining superheroes in American comics history.

Since computers rely on the distribution of electrons in microchips to represent binary code, cosmic rays and ionizing radiation from radioactive elements can introduce software errors by detaching electrons from atoms.

Five potential ways to achieve time travel

While the author discounts the possibility of traveling to the past, it lays out five hypothetical modes of catapulting into the future: speed, gravity, suspended animation, wormholes, and light. Each has some scientific basis, but none are realistic for humans. Read the article to learn where they offer promise and where they fall short.

Depictions of antimatter in science fiction include misleading portrayals of it coming from parallel universes, being mined from asteroids, and serving as a workable laser beam.

Cosmic rays can be detected using cloud chambers—containers where alcohol vapor condenses around trails of ions created by these high-speed particles from space.

The ultraviolet catastrophe is the infinite energy prediction of classical physics

When scientists first tried calculating the radiation emitted by a heated object, their assumption was that energy was equally distributed across wavelengths and produced infinite energy at low wavelengths. This contradicted observations, which showed near-zero energy intensity at those values.

The deaths of massive stars and the mergers of neutron stars and black holes can produce gamma-ray bursts—jets of particles moving in opposite directions at near-light speed that comprise the universe's most powerful explosions.

Comic-Con began in 1970 in the basement of a San Diego hotel, with just a handful of comic book enthusiasts sharing their wares.

Explore illustrative depictions of Chernobyl in comic books

Pieces related to the location since the nuclear disaster have told stories about radioactive vampires and monsters, accounts of bureaucratic corruption and creed, and visual retellings of experiences those in the region lived through before and after the event.

Fantasy and science fiction are distinct genres, though they sometimes overlap

Fantasy stories take place in universes where magic exists; science fiction stories take place in universes that are still grounded in the physics of our world. In science fiction, supernatural powers have scientific explanations. Think of “Spiderman”: Peter Parker gains his powers after being bitten by a radioactive spider.

Ray Bradbury said he was inspired to pursue writing after meeting a magician named Mr. Electrico, but scholars have never been able to confirm the story.

The origins of our fascination with time travel

Humans have been captivated by the prospect of leaping forward and backward in time for thousands of years. Georgia Institute of Technology Science Fiction Studies Professor Lisa Yaszek recounts how the concept has been utilized by storytellers from 400 BCE to modern-day to explore our relationship with the supernatural, technology, and the past. In a way, this historical recounting is a journey through time.

Play a puzzle game where the speed of light is reduced to everyday speeds

In "Velocity Raptor," space and time warp as you make your way across a room of obstacles at "normal" speeds. Take advantage of these relativistic effects to solve puzzles involving clocks running at different rates and colors shifting as a result of your movement.

Tachyons are theoretical particles that travel through space faster than light

The equations of special relativity require these objects to possess imaginary mass, and they would travel faster the more energy is taken away from them. The existence of tachyons would necessitate an unknown form of matter and lead to paradoxes involving information that can hypothetically travel backward in time.

Learn how to build your own cloud chamber to detect cosmic rays—particles from space that move near the speed of light—at home.

Kevin Feige first teased 'The Avengers' on a panel at Comic-Con 2006

At San Diego Comic-Con 2006, which featured Marvel Studios' inaugural panel about their upcoming films, Feige was asked if the characters might eventually overlap. He responded by saying that one day they may add up and “equal the Avengers”—teasing what would become one of Hollywood’s biggest franchises.

A nuclear reactor's characteristic blue light is produced from superluminal particles

When light travels through water, its effective speed is 25% lower than its speed in a vacuum. Just as sound waves bunch up and produce a sonic boom when objects move faster than the speed of sound, particles moving faster than this reduced speed generate a shock wave of light, visible as a blue hue.

Cathode rays are beams of electrons that emit light when hitting a fluorescent screen

When these beams are emitted into an evacuated tube containing charged plates or a nearby magnet, deflections are observed due to the electron charge. In 1897, J.J. Thomson's calculations of this deflection led to his discovery of the subatomic particle.

Comic books were a major part of American propaganda efforts during WWII

See how US comic books, alongside international counterparts, served as powerful wartime propaganda tools from 1941 to 1945—boosting morale, promoting war bonds, and demonizing Axis powers through the use of iconic heroes and patriotic messaging.

Some scientists hypothesize that stressed rocks can discharge built-up static electricity in the form of lightning—a phenomenon known as fracto-luminescence, or earthquake lights.

Understanding why charged particles from the sun protect Earth from more dangerous particles

The solar wind engulfs the solar system in a protective bubble called the heliosphere, which was first theorized in the late 1950s based on studies of cosmic rays—high-energy particles traveling through space at near light speed. The heliosphere shields the solar system from much of this ionizing radiation originating elsewhere in the Milky Way.

Many believe modern fan fiction began with 'Star Trek.'

Protecting astronauts against space radiation

Outside the protective atmosphere of Earth, astronauts are constantly bombarded by radiation, which, among other dangers, increases the risk cancer. While those of us on Earth can mitigate the effects of similar radiation by limiting exposure,...

How 'Star Wars' changed science fiction

The popularity of "Star Wars" shifted the market away from the more literary, and sometimes cynical, science fiction of the 1960s and '70s. In the wake of George Lucas' space opera, publishers and studios wanted similarly optimistic adventure stories. In time, though, writers like William Gibson would react against that and, in turn, create the "cyber punk" subgenre.

Comic books were used as a form of government propaganda in World War II.

Space weather phenomena, including solar flares, coronal mass ejections, and solar wind, are driven by the sun's magnetic field and can affect Earth's ground- and space-based technological systems.

Cyclotrons move particles in spiral paths of increasing radius

After particles are injected into the center of the device, an alternating electric field and a constant magnetic field energize the particles as they spiral outward toward a target. Cyclotrons are common in hospitals that perform molecular imaging, which relies on radioactive components that decay within hours.

Explaining pulsars, the cosmic clocks and lighthouses of the universe

As of 2023, over 3,000 of these rapidly rotating neutron stars have been discovered, which contain magnetic fields along which energized particles accelerate and emit light, including X-rays, gamma rays, visible light, and, most commonly, radio waves. The fastest of these, PSR J1748–2446ad, rotates 716 times per second, meaning its surface equator moves at about 24% the speed of light.

Superman first appeared in 1938

The Man of Steel debuted in the first issue of "Action Comics." The original cover price was 10 cents. In 2024, a copy of the comic sold at auction for $6M.

A 36-year-old Russian physicist survived a particle accelerator beam to the head

Several safety mechanisms failed during Anatoli Bugorski's inspection of malfunctioning equipment at the U-70 synchrotron, the Soviet Union's largest particle accelerator. Despite receiving as much as 600 times the lethal dose of radiation to the brain, he has shown no intellectual damage and worked until the age of 77.

The origin of cyborgs

The term "cyborg" was coined in a 1960 academic paper discussing what alterations humans would need to undergo to survive in extraterrestrial environments, a venture far "more logical than providing an earthly environment" in space. According to authors Manfred E. Clynes and Nathan S. Kline, Cyborgs with a capital C have incorporated exogenous components that extend their ability to adapt to new environments. Read the paper here.