The Judiciary Act of 1789 created the foundation of the federal justice system

The Department of Justice was formally established in 1870

Passed by Congress in 1870, the Act to Establish the Department of Justice centralized federal legal work under the attorney general, bringing together US attorneys and marshals into a single department.

US marshals were the first federal law enforcement officers

Established in 1789, US marshals carried out court orders, served subpoenas, made arrests, and collected fines—serving as the federal government's main law enforcement agency across the states for nearly a century before the creation of the DOJ.

John Marshall strengthened the Supreme Court and national authority

As chief justice, John Marshall established the principle of judicial review. He reinforced federal supremacy in key cases, defining the Supreme Court as a powerful arbiter between states and the national government under the US federal system.

A single 1803 Supreme Court case, Marbury v. Madison, gave courts the power to strike down acts of Congress.

The Tariff Act of 1789 was one of America's first acts.

The powers of the judicial branch have expanded since the nation's founding

Initially, the Supreme Court was seen as the weakest branch, lacking "the power of the sword or the purse," as Alexander Hamilton noted in *Federalist No. 78*. This podcast explores the political conflicts and pivotal decisions that transformed the court into the powerful constitutional authority it is today.

John Marshall advanced federal supremacy and judicial review

Marshall's jurisprudence emphasized that the Constitution is the supreme law of the land, enforceable by an independent judiciary. Through his court's decisions, he affirmed judicial review, broad implied powers for Congress, and federal authority to override conflicting state laws.

The Department of Justice is the nation's chief law enforcement and legal agency

Established in 1870, the US Department of Justice enforces federal law, safeguards civil rights, and represents the United States in court—serving as the central authority for federal prosecutions and legal advice across all executive agencies.

John Marshall inherited a marginal and largely inactive Supreme Court

By 1801, the court had little institutional authority or public standing. Its first three chief justices served only 11 years combined, and in its first decade, the court decided only 63 cases—none of which struck down a federal or state law.

The history of bankruptcy in the US dates back to the signing of the Constitution

In 1787, this founding document gave Congress the right to establish nationwide bankruptcy laws. Legislators took advantage of that power in 1800 when they passed the Bankruptcy Act of 1800, the first comprehensive bankruptcy law at the federal level.

Read the majority opinion that established judicial review

In his opinion in Marbury v. Madison, Chief Justice John Marshall argued that a written constitution is "paramount law" and that courts must refuse to enforce statutes that conflict with it. He declared that "it is emphatically the province and duty of the Judicial Department to say what the law is."

The Articles of Confederation were the first governing documents of the United States

Drafted in 1777 and ratified in 1781, the articles created a weak national government without the ability to tax or regulate commerce. This led to problems for the new nation, necessitating the Constitutional Convention in 1787.

Hamilton built the foundations of the US financial system as the nation's first Treasury secretary

Appointed the nation's first Treasury secretary in 1789 by George Washington, Alexander Hamilton designed a powerful federal finance system—repaying war debts, creating new taxes, founding a national bank, and promoting economic development.

Alexander Hamilton played a significant role in creating the American system of government

From 1787 to 1788, Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay anonymously published a collection of essays known as the Federalist Papers to promote the new Constitution. Of the 85 essays that proved pivotal to the eventual ratification of the document, Hamilton wrote 51.

Explore the nearly 1,000 laws, regulations, and provisions the court has held unconstitutional since Marbury v. Madison

Over more than two centuries, the Supreme Court has struck down nearly 1,000 federal, state, and local measures—exercising its authority to invalidate laws that conflict with the Constitution and shaping civil rights, the separation of powers, and the scope of government authority.

Marbury v. Madison established the Supreme Court's power of judicial review

The 1803 ruling empowered courts to strike down laws that violate the Constitution, permanently expanding the Supreme Court's authority and cementing its role as a coequal branch. This video explains the case and its lasting impact.

James Madison wrote the first draft of the Bill of Rights

Madison drafted the initial set of constitutional amendments in 1789. The House approved 17 amendments; the Senate reduced them to 12; and 10 were ratified as the Bill of Rights. One rejected amendment was later ratified in 1992 as the 27th Amendment.

Alexander Hamilton consolidated the states' debts, implemented a tax system, and established a national bank.

The United States is the world's oldest continuously operating federal system under a written constitution

The US pioneered federalism in the late 18th century, and many countries later adopted federal systems to manage conflict and share power. This resource features interactive maps that trace the spread of federal systems worldwide from 1900 to the present.

The separation of powers is a pivotal component of the US Constitution

Explore how the three branches interact through the Supreme Court case of US v. Alvarez. The Supreme Court first struck down a law, then Congress and the president later revised it—illustrating how judicial review can reshape legislation and executive action.

Hear a narrative account of Justice John Marshall's 'simple' upbringing and his major impact on the American republic.

The roots of American law and the jury system trace back to medieval England

King Henry II established a jury of 12 local knights to settle land disputes in the 12th century, and his judges developed national laws common to everyone. American courts inherited this "common law" tradition directly from the English system.

Explore the world's oldest constitutions

The 1789 US Constitution remains the oldest active written national constitution. Older systems exist—such as San Marino’s statutes or the Magna Carta—but they are not single, codified constitutions. See how other countries compare in this visualization.

The Nationality Act of 1790 restricted new citizenship to 'free white persons'

The first federal citizenship law limited naturalization to white immigrants, excluding enslaved people, Indigenous communities, and most non-Europeans.

Trace how the Bill of Rights, inspired by centuries of political theory, took shape between 1774 and 1789.

This interactive resource from the National Constitution Center traces the complex drafting process behind the Bill of Rights, showing how state proposals and revisions evolved into the first 10 amendments.

Congress has the power to enact laws related to bankruptcy, thanks to the US Constitution

It has done just that since 1800. This legislation, which outlines the various types of bankruptcy filings, has evolved over time. The most recent iteration is the Bankruptcy Reform Act of 1978, which introduced Chapter 11 filings in an effort to make the process easier for businesses and individuals.

Read the Federalist Papers—the essays that defended the proposed Constitution

Written between 1787 and 1788, the Federalist Papers—85 essays by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay—defended the Constitution and articulated the logic of federalism. They remain a key guide to the original interpretation of the Constitution.

The Bill of Rights spent more than a century largely ignored by the courts

When ratified in 1791, the Bill of Rights applied only to the federal government, which exercised little direct control over daily life. It played a limited role in early constitutional law until the 20th century, when legal advocates began using it to challenge state and local laws.

Courts referee federalism disputes between Congress and the states

Modern federalism is primarily worked out through litigation. The Supreme Court decides disputes in written opinions that explain when federal law preempts state authority, how far Congress's powers extend, and when states may resist.

Marshall used deft political maneuvering to increase the court's power in Marbury v. Madison

This podcast explores how Chief Justice John Marshall avoided a direct clash with President Jefferson by denying William Marbury his commission—while simultaneously declaring that courts can strike down unconstitutional laws—cementing judicial review, and expanding the Supreme Court's authority.

The Bill of Rights was designed to protect individuals from the power of the federal government

When the Bill of Rights was ratified in 1791, its protections applied only to the federal government. It wasn't until the 14th Amendment (1868) and the Supreme Court's doctrine of selective incorporation that most provisions were extended to state governments—a process that began in 1925.

In 1792, Congress established the first national mint to produce all the coins in the US

At the same time, the US also started producing the dollar, its first official currency. The US Mint has since issued coins throughout the country.

Marshall was briefly secretary of state and chief justice at the same time

Appointed secretary of state by John Adams in 1800, Marshall oversaw foreign policy during disputes with France, Britain, and Spain, including support for the Convention of 1800. For about a month in early 1801, he served as both secretary of state and chief justice.

Explore the biographies and official portraits of every US attorney general since 1789.

Hamilton created the First Bank of the United States

As Treasury secretary, Alexander Hamilton proposed the First Bank of the United States to stabilize national finances—serving as the government's fiscal agent, managing debt, and expanding credit through a public-private banking model.

Early attorneys general worked alone and often kept private law practices.

The Department of Justice spent $44B in 2024.

Early American citizenship was defined inconsistently by individual states.

A court designed to be the least powerful branch of government became one of the most influential institutions in America.

The Articles of Confederation were not a federal system

Ratified in 1781, the Articles of Confederation left the states sovereign and independent, denied the national government power to tax or regulate commerce, and forced Congress to act through the states—exposing the limits of confederation and paving the way for US federalism.

US marshals conducted the national census for nearly a century

From 1790 to 1870, US marshals handled the national census, gathering population data from every district. The responsibility was gradually transferred to a separate federal office that would officially become the Census Bureau in 1902.

The US framework of government has influenced the constitutions of many other countries

In 1787, the US Constitution introduced a system built on the separation of powers and individual liberties, including freedom of speech and religion. Though widely influential, its rigidity has made it less of a modern model as countries adopt more adaptable constitutional frameworks.

A 1787 convention clash led to the creation of Congress’s two chambers

This article recounts debates on September 4, 1787, when delegates at the Constitutional Convention clashed over the balance of power between large and small states, driving the compromise that created the House and Senate.

The first test of America's war powers came just a decade after the Constitution was ratified

During the undeclared Quasi-War with France in 1800, the Supreme Court ruled in Bas v. Tingy that Congress had authorized a valid "imperfect war" through statutes alone, without a formal declaration, establishing that there is a legal spectrum between peace and declared war.

The 1787 Constitutional Convention was initially called to amend the Articles of Confederation

Delegates initially met in 1787 to amend the Articles of Confederation, but within weeks chose to redesign the government entirely. Months of intense debate over power and representation produced the compromises that shaped the Constitution.

John Marshall had roughly 1 year of formal schooling

Born in a log cabin, along with many of his siblings, Marshall received only about a year of formal education. He briefly attended lectures at the College of William & Mary before beginning a legal career that ultimately led to the nation's highest court.

The Great Compromise created Congress's two-chamber structure during the Constitutional Convention

The Great Compromise of 1787 established a bicameral Congress, balancing population-based representation in the House with equal representation for each state in the Senate—a system designed to reconcile the competing interests of large and small states.

The debate over federalism helped produce the novel character of the United States

During ratification, Federalists argued that a strong national government was essential for national survival. Anti-Federalists warned that it could overwhelm states and threaten individual liberty—forcing compromises that shaped early American federalism and led to the adoption of the Bill of Rights.

The Department of Justice is led by the US attorney general

The attorney general acts as the nation's top law enforcement official—managing all Department of Justice activities, overseeing US attorneys, and advising the president and federal agencies on legal issues that influence policy and enforcement.

See how a US Supreme Court justice is nominated and confirmed

A president nominates a Supreme Court justice, the Senate Judiciary Committee conducts public hearings and background vetting, and the full Senate debates and votes on confirmation—a process explained step by step in this video.