Is ice slippery because of amorphization—a chaos of molecules caused by sliding?

Simulations suggest ice's slipperiness comes from rearranging molecules

Past models have proposed that slipperiness arises from a thin layer of liquid water formed at the ice's surface by frictional melting. However, new research suggests that electromagnetic forces between interacting surfaces push water molecules out of an ordered, crystalline structure and into a shapeless, soft, slippery layer. This process occurs solely through contact, independent of pressure or friction.

Different types of ice link water molecules together in unique shapes

The ice used to cool drinks—Iₕ—is composed of H₂O molecules arranged in hexagonal structures. This structure forms as ice expands during freezing, providing additional space between molecules, lowering the overall density, and allowing it to float in water. Under sufficient pressure, this spacing can collapse in many ways, creating new forms of ice.

There may be 74,963 kinds of ice, resulting from water molecules rearranging themselves

The theoretical limit greatly expands the known types of ice, with type Iₕ being the most common on Earth and forming hexagonal crystals. The extreme environments of planets like Uranus and Neptune can create a variety of ice with unique structures and properties, as these conditions can reshape these crystals into new geometries.

High freezing speed restricts the development of gritty crystal chunks in ice cream

For this reason, ice cream does not maintain its smoothness when refrozen in a traditional freezer over several hours. The smooth texture is also made possible by balancing fat, sugar, and emulsifiers.

Under certain conditions, very hot liquids can freeze more quickly than cooler ones—a phenomenon called the Mbemba effect, after the Tanzanian high school student who accidentally observed it.

Friction is the force that resists the sliding of surfaces along one another

Friction always acts to resist movement and is determined by how rough the surfaces are and how hard they are pressed together. In the case of fluids, friction arises from the relative motion between adjacent fluid layers, which act like sliding surfaces.

If the temperature of water continuously decreases but it is not given room to expand, it will eventually contract and form exotic forms of ice that sink in liquid water.

Ice cream’s unfrozen consistency is thanks to sugar

Making ice cream is a complex, multistep scientific process. But the treat’s scoopable, chewable consistency is due to the product’s dissolved sugar.

Explaining the Leidenfrost effect, where water can hover and move against gravity

Water droplets can glide across surfaces whose temperatures are well above water's boiling point. This heat instantly vaporizes the bottom of the droplet, creating a layer of steam that the rest of the droplet rides and bounces upon. This can be seen when sprinkling water on skillets to determine if the surface is hot enough to cook on.

Snowflakes form when water vapor turns directly into ice

Every water molecule has a slightly bent shape due to electron repulsion and regularly forms bonds with hydrogen molecules. When they freeze, they form a six-sided (or hexagonal) lattice, resulting in the six-sided symmetry of snowflakes. As the snowflake falls, more water molecules freeze onto its six sides, forming the unique, beautiful geometric designs.

A chemical overview of water, whose uncommon properties help sustain life on Earth

The uneven distribution of charge in water molecules allows them to bond to each other and to surfaces, enabling them to move against gravity, including up plants through roots and stems. These bonds also keep water in a liquid state over a wider temperature range and make it less dense as it freezes. This causes ice to float and form an insulating layer for underwater ecosystems, from which all life originated.

As crystals form, their properties and the shapes they take on, including cubic, tetragonal, and hexagonal patterns, reflect the arrangement of their constituent atoms.

At 0.01 degrees Celsius (32.02 degrees Fahrenheit) and about 0.6% of Earth's surface pressure, water simultaneously exists as a solid, liquid, and a gas.

The steep and slippery Russian ice slides sparked centuries-long obsessions with thrill-seeking

When a French traveler happened upon the 17th and 18th century Russian pastime of sledding down man-made hills, he brought the idea home and inspired others to modernize the mechanics. Adoration for coasters spread around Europe and eventually reached the US, where the scream machine would undergo major advancements.

The composition of comets earned them the nickname 'dirty snowballs'

The icy relics of the solar system are composed of rock, gravel, dust, and frozen molecules, such as carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, methane, ammonia, and water. Once close to the sun, these compounds sublimate into gases, creating a fuzzy cloud that earned the comets another nickname in history: hairy stars.

Although the term 'glacial pace' is associated with the slow movement of glaciers, during glacier surging, these massive bodies of ice can move over 60 meters (200 feet) a day.

How glaciers melt

Greenland and Antarctica are home to most of the world's glacial ice, including its only two ice sheets, making them areas of particular interest to scientists. Watch this three-minute video to learn why understanding them is not just interesting, but crucial to our near-term adaptability and our long term survival in a changing world.

Fish in polar waters contain proteins in their blood that act as antifreeze, and some manufacturers have used lab-grown versions of these proteins to help keep ice cream smooth.

Avalanches happen when layered snow fails, often on perfect ski slopes

Snowpacks form unstable layers as weather shifts; a weak, refrozen layer buried under fresh snow can shear and release a slab avalanche on certain steep slopes. Triggers range from new snowfall to the movement of skiers, while survival depends on the presence of ski partners, beacons, and rescue teams.

A breakdown of gelling agents used to modify a liquid's texture

Gelatin, agar, and other substances form a structural network that traps liquid, making it appear solid and enabling chefs to create stable layers in pastries and confectionery products. In different concentrations, they can also be used to thicken liquids into gels or encase them in gelatinous spheres.

What is freezing fog?

Freezing fog is a weather condition in which fog containing supercooled water freezes on contact with objects, forming a layer of ice and possibly dangerous driving conditions. Get the breakdown with this explainer.

Debating whether water is or is not wet depends on one's definition of wetness

If defined as a liquid sticking to a surface, then water itself is not wet. The sensation of "wetness" arises from water molecules latching onto an object. This occurs because water is a polar molecule possessing local regions of positive and negative charge that are attracted to charge imbalances on the surface of materials.

Freezer burn is the result of moisture leaving ice cream, something that's easily avoidable.

Once cooled to temperatures just above 2 Kelvin, helium atoms exhibit a quantum property that removes internal friction, allowing the fluid to climb up walls.

How melting ice impacts the whole world

Melting glaciers and ice caps are far from where most people live, but their impact can be felt across the planet. Visit four places—the American West, a Himalayan valley, the northern Atlantic, and Texas—with this immersive interactive to see the various impacts of melting ice around the world.

Explore a simulation of ideal gas behavior, which can be explained by kinetic molecular theory

The theory describes particles as moving in random directions, with a distribution of velocities determined by the gas's temperature. The particles collide elastically like billiard balls, are negligibly small, and do not exert forces on one another. The gas laws can be derived from these principles using statistics or observed via this interactive.

Some tectonic plates move faster than their underlying convection currents

Like a chain slipping off a ledge, as tectonic plates sink, their weight can pull the rest of the trailing plate forward, accelerating their movement. Plates can also break apart and fall, creating a suction effect that drives movement, resembling leaves following a passing car.

While landslides are associated with the downward flow of unstable terrain, the term encompasses a variety of geological processes, which are distinguished by how the material moves and what materials are involved.

Winter Olympic sports highlight various laws and principles of physics

Figure skaters leverage the conservation of angular momentum during spins by tightening their bodies, and the skintight suits used in ski jumping help reduce drag. Centripetal force allows speedskaters to make tight turns, while friction on skis helps ski mountaineers climb slopes. No action can violate the conservation of energy.

What causes hail?

Hail can be a particularly destructive element of certain thunderstorms, occurring even during otherwise warm days. Learn about the dynamics that lead to ice chunks falling from the sky.

Lightning is the sudden flow of electricity in the atmosphere as two oppositely charged regions seek to become balanced via the movement of electrons.

Research shows that cosmic rays may trigger the cascade of displaced electrons needed to produce lightning, which is also enabled by pointed ice crystals that create strong electric fields.

Ice ages are periods of glaciation that last tens of millions of years

During these periods, Earth grows cold and is covered in massive continental ice sheets. Scientists have outlined at least five major ice ages, which result from the alignment of complex factors, like the flow of ocean currents and the movement and location of tectonic plates.

Turbulence has been called the most important unsolved problem in classical physics

Despite being the most common type of fluid flow in our world, scientists have struggled to model turbulent flow accurately. Though behaving unpredictably, understanding inertia and viscosity can help determine whether turbulence will occur.

Dark comets appear to be rocky asteroids but move like comets

Cometary orbits are known to exhibit accelerations independent of gravity that result from forces related to the release of gases. Dark comets exhibit this behavior but lack visible clouds of frozen material that have turned into a gas—the coma the comets display—indicating minor quantities of escaping subsurface ice.

Avalanches, which kill an average of 27 people in the US each year, typically require mountain slopes between 30 and 45 degrees and a layer of sturdy snow atop a weak, unstable layer, which can be put into motion by a trigger.

'Watermelon snow'—patches of pink, orange, and red in snow—is the result of extremophilic green algae that thrive in extremely frigid conditions and take the shape of red spheres in winter.

Viscosity is a fluid's resistance to flow, which varies with temperature

Liquids become less viscous as temperature increases, while gases become more viscous and therefore flow more slowly. The increased gas collisions at higher temperatures contribute to greater friction between streamlines, increasing viscosity.

When experiencing turbulence, fluid elements undergo stretching and folding

Simulations show patches of fluid particles, such as splashes of milk, bend under turbulent flow, creating curvature that grows linearly then exponentially. This accelerated deformation enhances folding and mixing faster than other methods, such as stirring or beating.

You have never made physical contact with anything in your life because electrons in the outer layer of atoms on the surface of objects repel one another.

Diamond rain is thought to form within Uranus and Neptune, whose interiors can compress carbon atoms from methane into these falling crystals.

Understanding turbulence, which is characterized by growing chaos at multiple scales

As energy is lost in fluids undergoing turbulent, non-linear flow, particles will collectively form eddies, or whirlpools, of various sizes that mix together. The energy cascade of larger eddies becoming smaller ones before dissipating completely varies based on the initial conditions of the fluid, a characteristic feature of chaotic systems.

Mathematics proves turbulence's chaos creates super diffusion

Turbulent flow is responsible for the rapid scattering of dandelion seeds, volcanic ash, and untied balloons. Its swirling behavior accelerates particle scattering faster than other mixing methods, as particles acquire energy from the interactions of eddies.

The magic angle to skip a spinning stone is 20 degrees

The traditional shoreside activity—reputedly practiced by luminaries Shakespeare and Homer—can be broken down into its bare physics, from hydrodynamics and momentum to gravity.

The conditions needed for cloud iridescence, or rainbow clouds

The relatively rare phenomenon occurs when sunlight scatters off tiny water droplets or ice crystals in thin, newly-forming or semi-transparent clouds, such as altocumulus, cirrocumulus, lenticular, and cirrus varieties. This effect is similar to what is seen in soap bubbles and mother-of-pearl shells and produces pastel-like colors.

Cooling silica nanoparticles lets physicists push the boundary of how large an object can still behave quantum mechanically.

Permafrost—soil, rocks, and sand that are held together by ice and remain frozen for at least two consecutive years—covers about 15% of the Northern Hemisphere's land area.

Lichtenberg figures capture lightning-like patterns within insulators

When high-energy electrons from particle accelerators are fired into materials like acrylic, they form a charged plane before discharging into scarred patterns within the material. By evenly charging a cylindrical bottle through rotation during the irradiation process, a 3D figure of lightning in a bottle can be created.

Glacial ice loss can be determined by listening to escaping bubbles

Glaciers form from the accumulation of layers of snowfall over hundreds to thousands of years, trapping air bubbles that serve as time capsules of atmospheric conditions at the time. When glaciers melt, these bubbles produce a distinctive sound that can be detected by underwater microphones, allowing assessment of melting from a safe distance.

Cooling lava naturally creates hexagonal cracks to evenly relieve stress

When lava cools and turns into rock, it contracts and builds up tension, particularly when held in place by the surrounding landscape. Just as drying mud cracks, initial cracks in the rock are random, but quickly organize into a hexagonal pattern, which scientists consider the most space-efficient shape.