High freezing speed restricts the development of gritty crystal chunks in ice cream

Ice cream’s unfrozen consistency is thanks to sugar

Making ice cream is a complex, multistep scientific process. But the treat’s scoopable, chewable consistency is due to the product’s dissolved sugar.

Fish in polar waters contain proteins in their blood that act as antifreeze, and some manufacturers have used lab-grown versions of these proteins to help keep ice cream smooth.

Freezer burn is the result of moisture leaving ice cream, something that's easily avoidable.

A guide to making ice cream with liquid nitrogen by flash-freezing dairy

Only existing in liquid form at extremely low temperatures, nitrogen can rapidly freeze cream, coconut milk, and other liquids into small crystals, producing smooth, creamy ice cream. As a safety precaution, liquid nitrogen should be handled in a well-ventilated area with safety goggles and protective gloves.

Tasty vegan ice cream depends on fat

Making delicious ice cream without dairy is a challenge for food scientists because most nondairy milks have more water than fat, which creates tasteless ice crystals when frozen. The key is finding a base with enough fat to give the finished product its signature creamy mouthfeel.

Ice cream, gelato, sorbet, and Italian ice are all popular cold desserts, though they have many important differences.

Dairy Queen can't legally call its frozen dairy products 'ice cream' because they don't meet FDA qualifications for the term.

In the 19th century, ice-cream-related illnesses were somewhat regular in America thanks to vendors' poor hygienic practices.

Is ice slippery because of amorphization—a chaos of molecules caused by sliding?

Traditional explanations cite three factors that make ice slippery: pressure, friction and so-called premelting. A fourth has been proposed in recent years: amorphization, that sliding along some surfaces creates molecular disorder, causing liquid-like behavior.

If the temperature of water continuously decreases but it is not given room to expand, it will eventually contract and form exotic forms of ice that sink in liquid water.

Under certain conditions, very hot liquids can freeze more quickly than cooler ones—a phenomenon called the Mbemba effect, after the Tanzanian high school student who accidentally observed it.

Simulations suggest ice's slipperiness comes from rearranging molecules

Past models have proposed that slipperiness arises from a thin layer of liquid water formed at the ice's surface by frictional melting. However, new research suggests that electromagnetic forces between interacting surfaces push water molecules out of an ordered, crystalline structure and into a shapeless, soft, slippery layer. This process occurs solely through contact, independent of pressure or friction.

How freeze-drying leaves food with less than 4% of its original water content

In specialized equipment, foods are brought down to temperatures below freezing before a vacuum pump removes the air from the container, lowering the pressure around the food and the boiling temperature of water. Heaters beneath the food slowly raise its temperature above the now-reduced boiling point, causing the water to go from a frozen to a gaseous state.

A breakdown of gelling agents used to modify a liquid's texture

Gelatin, agar, and other substances form a structural network that traps liquid, making it appear solid and enabling chefs to create stable layers in pastries and confectionery products. In different concentrations, they can also be used to thicken liquids into gels or encase them in gelatinous spheres.

During World War II, fighter plane turbulence was used to make ice cream.

What is freezing fog?

Freezing fog is a weather condition in which fog containing supercooled water freezes on contact with objects, forming a layer of ice and possibly dangerous driving conditions. Get the breakdown with this explainer.

Ice cream can be traced back to a frozen milk dish from the 7th century.

America's ice cream obsession began under Prohibition, with the street treat acting as a legal vice that helped ease the pain of the Great Depression.

Different types of ice link water molecules together in unique shapes

The ice used to cool drinks—Iₕ—is composed of H₂O molecules arranged in hexagonal structures. This structure forms as ice expands during freezing, providing additional space between molecules, lowering the overall density, and allowing it to float in water. Under sufficient pressure, this spacing can collapse in many ways, creating new forms of ice.

Ice cream trucks are surging in popularity

Modern companies like HipPOPs and Big Gay Ice Cream are driving a resurgence of ice cream trucks, with an annual growth of approximately 9%. Experts say the market will keep growing through at least 2030.

One US Marine fighter squadron made their own ice cream during World War II

To boost his squad’s morale during World War II, squadron commander J. Hunter Reinburg developed a method for making ice cream on the fly: Empty ammo cans filled with ingredients were flown at altitudes high enough for them to freeze.

A collection of molecular gastronomy techniques, from flavored air to turning oils into powder

Soy lecithin can be blended with flavored mixtures, such as herbs and Parmesan, to produce edible bubbles, which can be frozen into a solid foam. Maltodextrin can be combined with liquid fats in a food processor to create light, flavorful powders.

Kulfi, an ice cream predecessor that's still popular in South Asia, dates back to the 16th century.

There may be 74,963 kinds of ice, resulting from water molecules rearranging themselves

The theoretical limit greatly expands the known types of ice, with type Iₕ being the most common on Earth and forming hexagonal crystals. The extreme environments of planets like Uranus and Neptune can create a variety of ice with unique structures and properties, as these conditions can reshape these crystals into new geometries.

Jam and jelly differ in texture because of how fruit is processed

Jam contains crushed fruit with preserved pulp and fibers for a thicker, spreadable texture. Jelly is made from filtered fruit juice and produces a smooth, translucent gel. The distinction reflects preservation methods developed to extend fruit shelf life while tailoring texture and appearance.

There's no definitive reason why an ice cream sundae is spelled with an 'e' rather than a 'y.'

Understanding the biochemistry of ingredients and taste can improve flavor and texture

Keeping eggs at room temperature produces smoother batters when baking, and doing the same with tomatoes helps prevent a mealy, granular mouthfeel. Salting meat a day before gives more time for proteins to break down, improving flavor and tenderness, while cooking vegetables in well-salted water can lock in nutrients and color.

Hail forms in freezing temperatures thousands of feet above the ground

Even if surface temperatures are well above freezing during the summer, updrafts during thunderstorms can push raindrops high into the atmosphere, where they can freeze and form hail. Giant hailstones the size of softballs require updrafts of close to 100 mph.

Agnes Marshall invented 'ices,' the Victorian equivalent of ice cream, and improved the period's hygienic practices for consuming the dessert.

The Mister Softee ice cream truck began with two brothers in a Chevy van in Philadelphia, selling green ice cream.

How chefs suspend liquid in edible pearls resembling caviar to introduce a new texture to fluids

Through spherification, drops of a solution of sodium alginate and a flavored liquid are placed in a calcium lactate solution, which forms a chemical skin around them. This is because calcium replaces the sodium in the alginate chains, forming a gel around each drop's liquid interior.

97% of Americans polled say they like or love ice cream

Make a popular no-churn watermelon ice cream, using just watermelon and milk.

Protein content and multiple fermentations create beer foam stability

Single-fermentation beers rely on protein viscosity for foam, with lipid transfer proteins transforming into stabilizing structures during fermentation. Scientists believe foam research may result in safer lubricants for electric vehicles.

George Washington loved to serve ice cream while hosting guests, and spent thousands of dollars on it in a single summer.

Rising fracking rates have increased prices of some food products

Every fracking well uses approximately 20,000 pounds of guar gum, a thickening and stabilizing agent commonly used in ice cream, salad dressing, and baked goods. The polysaccharide is also a key component in some cosmetics and explosives.

The frozen margarita was invented in Dallas using a repurposed soft-serve machine

On May 11, 1971, Dallas restaurateur Mariano Martinez adapted an ice cream machine to produce frozen margaritas using his father's recipe. The original machine now sits in the Smithsonian's National Museum of American History.

Explore a list of 12 recipes incorporating techniques from molecular gastronomy

The recipes include popcorn shooters that taste like liquid caramel corn, almost-instant soft serve made by blending frozen fruit with sugar and fromage blanc, a fusion of fried rice and pizza, and skewered fruit coated in a broiled, glossy meringue.

Once cooled to temperatures just above 2 Kelvin, helium atoms exhibit a quantum property that removes internal friction, allowing the fluid to climb up walls.

Explore a visualization of the data behind Ben & Jerry's legendary ice cream flavors.

The history of many kitchen appliances involves unexpected discoveries and applications, including wartime radar turned hamster defroster and replacing an 'ice king' with heat-stealing boxes.

Dilution fridges create the colder-than-space environments needed for quantum computers by successively lowering temperatures across layers plated with gold, which reduces heat transfer via radiation and gives them a chandelier-like appearance.

Learn the history of food science breakthroughs from the 20th century

Long after humans developed the means to produce sufficient food to feed civilizations, scientific research focused on a wide variety of objectives, such as developing methods to preserve food quality (accomplished via frozen food), speeding up cooking (leading to the microwave), and lowering the cost of sweetening food, which high fructose corn syrup provides.

Until late 2024, the company that makes McDonald's ice cream machines held an elusive repair monopoly on them, the culprit behind the frequent outages that fueled widespread social media discourse.

How texture affects taste

Texture is the brain's interpretation of several sensations, including pressure, as registered by our teeth, tongue, and finger tips, and sound, as recorded by our ears. Texture also speaks to food particle sizes—smaller than 35 microns contributes to the sensation of creamy—and the balance between flavor and mouth time, such as the crunch of a crispy chip or the bounce of a chewy caramel.

How to create salad dressings with oil and water solutions that don't separate into layers

Such dressings, even when whisked together, often break within a few minutes, resulting in bites that are either harsh or oily. Small amounts of emulsifiers, such as mustard or mayonnaise, can stabilize and suspend oil droplets in water for longer periods because they possess both hydrophilic (water-loving) and hydrophobic (water-repelling) ends.

A 2024 court ruling has had ripple effects for frozen embryos

The Alabama Supreme Court's 2024 ruling that embryos created through IVF are legally children has had a chilling effect on the fertility industry. A few centers for reproductive assistance paused egg fertilization, and others are questioning where the legal argument will lead. The decision has some surprising implications for the future of IVF technology, including techniques that haven't yet been invented.

Emmental cheese, what's often called 'Swiss cheese,' requires cheesemakers to create a specific set of imperfections.

What makes food crispy, and how science can be used to maximize this property

The fracturing texture experienced when biting into vegetable tempura, fried chicken, pastry crusts, and other foods comes from having a dehydrated, porous surface. When frying food in hot oil, trapped water vaporizes and escapes, creating tunnels and pores in the food as it dehydrates. Breading, particularly with the large, irregular shapes of panko, and leaveners can help create more air spaces.

While both butter and margarine are mixtures of tiny water droplets in a matrix of fat, butter's fatty acids are mostly saturated, while margarine's are primarily unsaturated, affecting how each melts.