Explaining the engineering challenges of extracting metal-rich nodules from the seafloor

Watch how deep-sea mining equipment collects and processes polymetallic nodules—metal-rich, potato-shaped rocks—from the ocean floor and creates environmentally damaging plumes of sediments.

Distinguishing the three types of mineral deposits collected via deep-sea mining

The greatest interest is in polymetallic nodules—structures formed from metals in seawater collecting around a core of shell, bone, or rock. Cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts cover underwater mountain ranges and form over millions of years of metal deposition. Polymetallic sulfide deposits accumulate when seawater seeps into volcanic rocks.

An overview of the metals obtainable through deep-sea mining of nodules and crusts

Polymetallic nodules are a source of manganese, cobalt, nickel, copper, molybdenum, and platinum, which are used in batteries, fuel cells, and metal alloys of electric vehicles. Seamount crusts contain rare-earth elements deemed essential to US national and economic security, including neodymium and dysprosium used to make permanent magnets.

Explaining deep-sea mining, including its economic benefits and potential biomedical risks

Extraction via machines sweeping the ocean floor would reduce child labor and human rights violations currently occurring in land-based operations that collect the minerals needed for modern-day electronics. However, these sweeps may kill undiscovered organisms that possess biologies from which antibiotics could be derived and destabilize deep-sea ecosystems.

Scientists have collected critical minerals from ocean water using seaweed, a type of algae that leaves behind a mineral-rich powder called bio-ore after being processed into biofuels.

Weird ways critical minerals are being mined

Critical minerals like lithium, cobalt, and graphite are economically crucial non-fuel resources subject to supply chain risks. To diversify production, scientists developed odd ways to harvest them. This article breaks down the weirdest approaches, including extracting minerals from seawater using algae, phytomining plants, and asteroids.

A visual exploration of the environmental impacts and uncertain demand for deep-sea mining

While models suggest demand for crucial metals is expected to exceed supply through 2050, new battery technologies, such as those that require no nickel or cobalt, introduce uncertainty that opponents of deep-sea mining see as not worth the risk of certain environmental damage, which includes noise and light pollution and the release of toxic plumes from mining equipment.

A case study of how engineers and geologists at Tullow Oil look for oil reserves

An analysis of surface rocks using aerial and satellite imagery can help narrow the search for crude oil by identifying basins where sedimentary layers have compacted—a key process in oil formation. Surveys that look for variations in Earth's gravitational and magnetic fields consistent with specific rock distributions, or that use sound waves reflected off rock layers—not unlike sonar underwater—can also help map subsurface geology.

Rare earth elements may be extracted from mine waste and coal ash

Rather than focusing solely on new mining operations, which can take decades to establish, some startups are developing methods to extract these metals from the toxic waste of existing operations and thereby minimize environmental impacts. (Some readers may experience a paywall.)

View a map of the distribution of mineral resources on the seafloor

Polymetallic nodules are found in regions near the middle of the Pacific Ocean, along the eastern coast of South America, and along the western coast of Africa, while cobalt-rich crusts span significant portions of the Pacific tropics east of the Philippines. Polymetallic sulfide deposits occur at tectonic plate boundaries, including areas within national jurisdictions.

Decommissioned oil rigs have been repurposed into artificial reefs that serve as nursery habitats for fish, corals, sponges, and other invertebrates in the decades since their installation.

The adaptations of metallophiles and how they can be harnessed for bioremediation

These extremophiles have adapted to biomes with very high concentrations of metals and toxic chemicals by developing mechanisms to isolate these substances within cellular compartments and break them down into less harmful forms with specialized proteins. They have the potential to support the decontamination of metal-rich wastewater and soil, as well as the extraction of rare-earth metals.

The CCZ is believed to harbor trillions of dollars of valuable minerals and thousands of undiscovered species

Located between Hawaii and Mexico and spanning an area larger than the European Union, the Clarion-Clipperton Zone is the world's region with the most contracts awarded to groups seeking to extract valuable metals by collecting polymetallic nodules. Conservative estimates suggest that 21.1 billion tons of polymetallic nodules exist in this abyssal plain, but about 90% of the species in the area are unknown to scientists.

What revisiting a 1979 experiment reveals about ecosystem recovery after deep-sea mining

A 2023 study co-led by the National Oceanography Centre and the Natural History Museum, London, found that tracks made by the mining vehicle remained largely unchanged since 1979. Small animals, such as amoeba-like xenophyophore, were seen in the cleared areas, but sightings of larger animals known to live in the region were much rarer. (Some readers may experience a paywall.)

Why deep-sea mining companies may begin extraction without global guidelines

International Seabed Authority negotiators have spent over a decade drafting regulations that all countries would have to follow before collecting minerals from the seabed. Because deadlines to finalize these agreements have been missed, some entities have discussed unsanctioned mining, despite about three dozen ISA countries calling for a pause on activity and automakers and tech firms pledging they will not use seabed minerals.

Geothermal power can reduce the dangerous mining of rare earth elements

Geothermal brines—mineral-rich underground fluids extracted for use in geothermal plants—contain small concentrations of REEs that can be recovered after energy generation. Although researchers suggest that this retrieval requires complex extraction methods at a significant scale to account for high flow rates, the chemical processes also occur in traditional REE processing.

Space trash could be cleaned up using a giant inflatable bag

California-based TransAstra has developed and tested a device called Capture Bag, intended to catch anything from small rocks to house-sized boulders. The company claims its system could also be adapted for asteroid capture and mining.

The history of deep-sea mining and its governance by the International Seabed Authority

The British HMS Challenger research vessel identified metal-rich seafloor rocks between Hawaii and Mexico in the 1870s, but rules governing which nations control which parts of the ocean were not established until 1958 by the UN. It later established the ISA to oversee mineral-related operations in international waters.

Salt is harvested from briny ocean water and underground deposits

Mostly sodium chloride, this compound is produced for human use by collecting seawater in shallow pans and allowing the Sun to evaporate the water until crystals remain. Underground rock salt is mined, crushed, and purified from deposits left behind by ancient seas that have dried-up.

Commercializing space debris removal may follow the commercialization of launches

Active debris removal is likely to focus on larger derelict objects, which are more easily identified and yield better financial returns. One actively researched possibility involves using netting to capture derelict objects before towing them into a controlled descent into an ocean.

NASA explores Earth's deepest oceans to prepare for space

By studying extreme environments in Earth's hadal zone—the deepest part of the ocean —NASA tests technologies, probes life under crushing pressure, and gathers clues about potential oceans and possible life on worlds like Europa and Enceladus.

With a reported value of $20M per kilogram, space resource extraction companies are seeking to harvest helium-3 from the moon for its potential use in clean nuclear fusion.

Watch how metals are extracted from rechargeable devices during recycling

Recyclable batteries found in cars, phones, power tools, and other electronics contain lithium, cobalt, nickel, and other precious metals, whose reuse generates 70% fewer emissions than during their initial mining. Upon shredding these devices, a filter press squeezes the pieces through a proprietary fluid, which separates them for future reuse.

How are scientists turning deserts into farmland?

This article explores how engineers are using a liquid nanoclay solution to transform barren deserts into productive fruit farms, drawing inspiration from how clay particles carried by floodwaters in the Nile Delta used to improve the fertility of...

Mining of rare earth elements risks leaking radioactive wastewater

The extraction and processing of REEs requires significant amounts of water, and poorly regulated projects can contaminate groundwater with acids and heavy metals. Toxic waste spills have paused work in several US mines since the 1980s, despite growing REE demand.

Learn about unconventional ways to clean up crude oil, including using moss and chickens

Studies show that microorganisms in chicken manure can break down the hydrocarbons in crude oil without producing toxic by-products. Scientists have also explored avoiding the environmental risks of chemical dispersants and synthetic adsorbents by using human hair and peat moss to adsorb crude oil, which can be taken up by their cuticles and porous structures, respectively.

Experiments suggest nuking a metal-rich asteroid may strengthen it

Scientists exposed meteorite samples to proton irradiation at CERN to mimic the effects of a nuclear detonation. The material exhibited greater resistance to breaking after the exposure, suggesting nuclear weapons may better serve to deflect asteroids, not break them.

How the US Department of Energy facilitated bioremediation with emulsified soybean oil

At sites where soil and groundwater were identified as contaminated with volatile organic compounds, scientists and engineers at the Office of Legacy Management used microbes to safely clean them up without more invasive methods, such as pump-and-treat. Treatment zones created at one location by injecting oil to help microbes spread quickly.

Some algae have helped remove microplastics from water after being bioengineered to clump together with these contaminants, forming an easily collectible microplastic-algae sludge.

Fracking provides access to fossil fuel reserves locked in underground rock

Using a pressurized fluid mixture that is over 90% water, cracks are created in shale about 2 miles deep to release trapped oil and natural gas. The process uses an average of 3 to 6 million gallons of water per well, which can strain local water supplies.

Some marine life can survive the extreme pressure of the deep ocean because of specialized molecules that strengthen proteins, enzymes, and cellular membranes.

Oil and natural gas from fracking is considered unconventional

This method forcibly extracts fossil fuels from tightly packed rocks, where they form from organic matter that has undergone extreme heat and pressure. Conventional drilling, on the other hand, waits for the oil and gas to escape from shale and accumulate in more porous and permeable rocks, such as limestone.

Scientists determined that tectonic plates moved the ocean floor by observing symmetric patterns of magnetic stripes on opposite sides of underwater volcano systems, which could only result from seafloor spreading.

The ocean gets its salt from runoff carrying fragments of eroded rock and from seawater dissolving salts and minerals from magma at seafloor spreading centers.

The cleanup of oil and other chemical spills involves a combination of methods tailored to different settings, including vacuuming, dispersing absorbent materials, chemicals, or biological agents, and localized burning.

Nuclear power relies on chain reactions involving uranium-235, but because the isotope's concentration in natural ores is too low to sustain these reactions, enrichment is needed to produce more highly concentrated fuel.

A visualization of mycoremediation, where fungi extract toxic and radioactive pollutants from soil

As organisms such as mushrooms grow, they develop large networks of root-like structures called mycelium that spread underground and release enzymes that break down contaminants. By absorbing these chemicals, fungi limit the damage caused by these toxins and localize them within the organism for easier collection and disposal.

Learn about endoliths, the polyextremophiles that thrive inside rocks

These organisms include species that live in Antarctica, where they perform photosynthesis using light and water that makes it through pores in sandstone. Others residing in Earth's crust can survive temperatures reaching 60 degrees Celsius (140 degrees Fahrenheit) while generating energy through chemical reactions involving nutrients and gases trapped in rocks.

A guide to crude oil and natural gas extraction, from rig site preparation to land restoration

Requirements for traffic plans, access roads, and noise barriers vary by state and local laws, but once the rig site is prepared, the rig is assembled and digs a well that is then encased in steel and cement to protect groundwater reservoirs. After drilling and testing the extraction pipe, fracking fluid is injected into the rock to create cracks where crude oil resides, allowing it to be pumped out.

All clean energy technologies rely heavily on critical minerals

Although many of these minerals have been used for decades, such as copper in electrical wiring, the accelerating demand for them has strained existing extraction and processing systems. Supply chain disruptions for these materials may delay and increase the cost of transitioning to solar, wind, hydroelectric, and geothermal power.

The industrial methods for recovering helium, including filters and cryogenic separation

Membranes with microscopic pores of varying sizes can be used to selectively filter out components of natural gas, including helium, which can then be concentrated. Because helium requires the lowest temperature of all elements to condense into a liquid, extracted natural gas can also be cooled until only helium remains as a gas.

As of 2025, humans have only dug 0.2% the way to Earth's center

The Kola Superdeep Borehole revealed two billion-year-old fossils and underground water, but the immense temperature and pressure prevented further tunneling. Beyond those depths, scientists know of Earth's interior by analyzing how seismic waves move.

See examples of hyperaccumulators, the plants that can harvest heavy metals

These ideal species for phytoremediation possess biochemistry that allows them to absorb and store these elements without being poisoned by their accumulation. Pycnandra acuminata, one such plant, has blue-green sap due to an abundance of nickel, which it captures from the nickel-rich soil in which it grows.

The challenges of trying to study microplastics in microplastic-abundant labs

The presence of microplastics in instruments, surfaces, and air has made accurate measurement of their levels in lab samples difficult, given the high likelihood of contamination. While the use of stainless steel tools in a sealed, clean lab may reduce accidental exposure, existing methods can misidentify biological substances, such as fat, as plastics, further complicating research.

As of 2025, China has been awarded the most deep-sea mining contracts by the ISA

The International Seabed Authority—established by the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea—grants 15-year contracts for governments and private companies to legally search for minerals and test seabed mining technologies. China is already the global leader in the processing and refining of critical minerals.

The warmest waters in the ocean are found at hydrothermal vents—hot springs on the seafloor that discharge plumes of mineral-rich water.

Plastic debris across the ocean aids the spread of invasive species

The durable, long-lasting material can serve as a platform for living organisms to latch onto and ride over vast distances. After the 2011 earthquake and tsunami in Japan, a large dock carrying 100 tons of living organisms native to Japan washed up on Oregon's coastline, confirming the ecological threat.

A look at hydrothermal vents, where barophiles and hyperthermophiles survive boiling water

Discovered in 1977 during an exploration of the Galapagos Rift, these seafloor openings spew hot magma and chemicals that heat seawater to hundreds of degrees. Without the sunlight found at depths of less than 1,000 meters (3,281 feet), extremophiles in these environments convert released chemicals into energy to survive, alongside surviving extreme pressures.

How scientists are using molecules found in acidophiles to develop new medical treatments

The Berkeley Pit, an open-pit copper mine in Butte, Montana, that ceased operations in 1982 and is now filled with highly acidic water, is home to various species of fungi and yeast. These extremophiles produce unique compounds that may have anti-inflammatory benefits and have already been used to create an antibiotic for staph infections.

Volcanic activity can lead to the formation of fertile soils

Ejected rock can introduce key minerals found in fertilizers, including iron, magnesium, and potassium, to improve soil quality. Ash and basalt crystals can be easily absorbed into soils, infusing them with sulfur, oxygen, chlorine, phosphorus, calcium, and other critical elements.