The US apparel and textile industry was long set up to limit competition from nations in the developing world—but shifts in international trade regulation in the 1990s changed that, paving the way for the fast fashion industry to develop.

Fast fashion companies such as Temu and Shein often took advantage of the de minimis exemption, a US tariff loophole that ended in 2025.

Listen to a podcast interview with an industry expert about why abstaining from fast fashion is so difficult for many Americans.

Trade between the US and China has significantly increased in recent decades.

Fast fashion brands sell cheap clothing by limiting how much they pay workers, using cheap synthetic material, and avoiding constraints on production levels and resulting environmental impacts.

There's a fast fashion graveyard in Chile's Atacama Desert full of used clothing from the US, Europe, and Asia.

See how much it costs to produce 100 T-shirts in different countries, from about $1,750 in the US to $855 in Bangladesh.

Nike’s labor practices became controversial in the 1990s—leading to widespread protests of the brand

In the 1990s, Nike came under fire for its use of factories with unsafe working conditions and child labour to produce its products. While Nike didn’t own the manufacturing sites, many people felt Nike was ultimately responsible for using sweatshops in countries like Vietnam and Thailand.

The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade and its successor, the WTO, was formed to reduce trade barriers between nations.

The GATT and its successor, the WTO, were established to lower trade barriers

Signed in 1947, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade began systematically reducing tariffs and trade barriers among member nations. In 1995, it was replaced by the World Trade Organization, which expanded those rules and established a formal dispute settlement system.

The US exported $426.3B in goods to Canada and imported $453.6B in goods from Canada in 2025.

Listen to a podcast episode that outlines 250 years of world trade history.

Tariffs once fueled the US economy, historically serving as a primary source of revenue and a means to protect domestic industries.

Countries tried to curb plastic waste, but the US keeps shipping more

Data show that American exporters continue to ship plastic waste overseas, often to poorer countries, even though most of the world has agreed to not accept it.

Tariffs are typically paid by the importing company or organization to the US Treasury.

Chinese clothing retailer Shein accounts for about half of fast-fashion sales in America.

After making its US debut in 2015, Shein's sales surged during the pandemic—in 2023, the fast fashion company was valued at roughly $66B.

Track how American tariffs have impacted different countries and industries.

Trump's 2025 tariffs represent a significant break from the rules-based trade order

The Trump administration imposed broad tariffs on other countries outside WTO rules in 2025, claiming that those countries had long violated trade agreements and that the US was simply leveling the playing field.

The Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act—which was passed during the Great Depression with the goal of reviving domestic industry—is among the most famous pieces of economic legislation in US history.

See every US state's top import partner as of 2024, with Mexico, Canada, and China being the top trade partners for 42 states.

A trade war is an economic conflict where nations impose tariffs or other trade barriers on each other in retaliation for similar actions.

Steve Jobs once explained why iPhones can’t be made in the US

In 2011, then-President Obama asked Steve Jobs, “What would it take to make iPhones in the United States?” Steve Jobs said it wasn’t a viable option, explaining that overseas factories had far outpaced the US’s in terms of skill and speed.

Auto and consumer goods companies absorbed billions in costs due to President Trump's 2025 tariffs.

Visualize the global supply chain of medicine, which may begin with basic research in the US, but outsource intermediate steps.

China's WTO membership produced significant disputes

Two decades after China joined, its trade practices—such as state subsidies, intellectual property disputes, and market access restrictions—have sparked accusations that it has not fully met WTO commitments of free and open trade.

How nylon was created

Nylon, one of the most ubiquitous materials in the world, was invented in 1935. Chemist Wallace Carothers was hired by American conglomerate DuPont to perform research. After seven years of work he produced nylon, the first wholly synthetic fabric. Carothers’ life ended tragically, but his contributions revolutionized everything from military equipment to women’s fashion.

The venture capital mindset is shaping the US into a 'portfolio state'

For decades, the US has operated as a low-regulation, private-sector-driven, globalized economy (also known as neoliberalism). In recent years, the Trump administration has taken direct stakes (rather than providing subsidies) in private companies with strategic products like semiconductors and rare earths. This paper argues the approach allows the US to capture the upside of growth.

The overall economic effect of President Trump's 2025 tariffs remains unclear

Researchers from UCLA and Yale found that tariff revenue and gains to US producers largely offset importers' costs—but the broader picture is murkier, as the trade deficit rose, manufacturing jobs declined, and 90% of tariff costs were passed through to importers rather than absorbed by foreign exporters.

As of 2023, more than 130 nations have enacted bans or restrictions on plastic items, starting with Bangladesh's ban on plastic bags in 2002.

Global trade volume is roughly 45 times what it was when the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade was founded

Since 1950, world trade values have grown nearly 410 times, mainly due to the successive tariff reductions negotiated under GATT and the WTO.

With the help of one photographer who took photos of children at work, child labor in the US was eventually restricted by law in the mid-1900s.

China's National Sword policy banned imports of most recyclable materials

In 2018, China stopped accepting most of the world's recyclables. This highlighted how dependent the US recycling system was on a single foreign buyer and forced cities to landfill materials they had once diverted.

Policymakers make complex trade-offs when considering tariffs—while they can generate government revenue and encourage the consumption of locally produced goods, they can also lead to higher consumer prices and may negatively impact economic growth.

The WTO is the global body that sets and enforces the rules of international trade

Founded in 1995, with 164 member countries, the WTO negotiates trade agreements, resolves disputes between nations, and aims to reduce barriers to international commerce.

Read how Fordism helped invent the American middle class

Henry Ford's revolution of the assembly line and American manufacturing as a whole gave rise to the American middle class. The introduction of the $5 workday (in exchange for eight-hour days of highly repetitive work) raised factory workers' wages enough to reorient the economy around consumer demand.

An economic evaluation of US tariffs

Most economists agree that the implementation of large-scale tariffs on foreign goods would hurt both the American and global economies. This video from The Wall Street Journal explains the rationale for tariffs as a tool for domestic job creation, but explains why they may hurt the overall economy.

The history of the World Trade Organization

This episode of the "Brettonomics with Nancy Jackson" podcast explores the history of the WTO and its predecessor, the GATT, revealing the key people, negotiations, and decisions that shaped today's international trade rules.

The global economy runs on US dollars, with nearly 90% of international trade in 2019 being processed in US dollars.

In 2024, Americans bought over $7B of cut flowers

That's more than any other country in the world. Most of the flowers Americans purchase are imported, creating an economy that's both booming and reliant on dwindling natural resources.

The first recorded worker strike in the United States predates the American Revolution.

Read an overview of US tariff policy before the second Trump Administration

This comprehensive report from the Congressional Research Service explores the evolving role of tariffs—from a major source of government revenue to a tool for trade and foreign policy—providing insights into current practices, legal foundations, and global trade dynamics.

See a chart showing how US tariff revenue has grown in recent years.

Dry goods stores sold products such as textiles and linens

RH Macy started Macy’s as a dry goods store in 1858. At the time, the store was located on New York City’s 14th Street. Dry goods stores later rebranded themselves for the future of retail around the 1930s.

Critics argue that the World Bank, IMF, and WTO were designed to serve Western interests

Some analysts from developing nations argue that the Bretton Woods institutions were designed to reinforce Western economic dominance rather than to promote fair development for poorer countries. Supporters respond that these institutions have improved living standards worldwide.

China joined the WTO in 2001

After 15 years of negotiation, China joined the WTO as the 143rd member. This move gave it access to the global market in exchange for commitments to economic liberalization, despite skepticism from existing members about integrating a state-controlled economy into a free-market system.

US immigrants shifted from primarily originating in Ireland and Germany to Mexico and India.

Trump's H-1B fee hike could reshape US industries and global talent flows

Analysts warn the new H-1B fee could trigger labor shortages in tech, medicine, and universities; push firms to offshore more work; and drive skilled Indian workers and students toward other countries—weakening America's innovation edge.

Before 1965, US immigration law relied on nationality-based bans and quotas.

A timeline of US immigration laws

The United States began regulating immigration soon after it won independence from Great Britain, and the laws since enacted have reflected the politics and migrant flows of the times. Here's a timeline of key immigration laws from 1790 to 2014, according to the Pew Research Center.

Tariffs are taxes levied on goods imported from abroad.