See how antidepressants—used by roughly 1 in 10 Americans—were discovered.

LSD-like drugs may inspire new antidepressants

LSD and psilocybin have shown promise as antidepressants. Using a virtual library of similar chemical compounds, researchers determined via animal studies that two molecules inspired by LSD have antidepressant effects without any associated hallucinogenic experience. These molecules were found to be 40 times more potent than the common antidepressant fluoxetine, also known as Prozac, with antidepressant effects lasting up to 21 days.

Antidepressants alone may fail to help an estimated one-third to one-half of depressed patients.

JJ Schildkraut theorized depression is linked to brain chemical imbalances—in 1965

Schildkraut was one of the first to put forward this idea, which stemmed from lab animal research. A decade later, researchers published the first landmark paper on fluoxetine—better known by trade name Prozac—which increases serotonin levels in the brain.

How depression affects the brain

Treatment for depression has historically hinged on the theory that the condition was caused by underactive or abnormal neurotransmitters, specifically serotonin and norepinephrine. This four-minute video by Yale Medicine details how these neurotransmitters didn't explain the symptoms of depression but, two other neurotransmitters involved in regulating mood and emotion did. GABA and glutamate, some of the brain's most plentiful neurotransmitters, may possibly be the source of depressive symptoms.

1 in 10 US adults are taking medication for depression

A US government report indicates that about 10% of US adults took prescription medication for this disorder in 2023. Women, at 15.3%, were more than twice as likely to take one of these medications than the 7.4% of men.

The pharmaceutical industry evolved, in part, from the discovery of synthetic dyes

In 1856, a chemist accidentally discovered mauveine, the world's first synthetic dye, while trying to make quinine to treat malaria. The synthetic dyes that followed helped reveal germs under microscopes, paving the way for modern imaging techniques and breakthrough treatments, such as antibiotics.

Two-thirds of antibiotic classes were made between the 1940s and 1960s

The vast majority of bacterial treatments were developed during the "Golden Age of Antibiotics," an era of rapid innovation and drug discovery that led to the reduction of millions of deaths worldwide. Since 1970, only eight new antibiotic classes have been discovered.

Depression changes the brain, causing distinct structural alterations visible on brain scans, but effective treatment can eventually make a depressed brain resemble a healthy one.

Explore this deep dive into how SSRIs work

This 101-style explainer on selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors explains how they work in the brain—complete with classroom-style whiteboard drawings. It covers common SSRIs, why someone might try this medication, and a deeper discussion about potential side effects.

Psychedelic DMT—part of ayahuasca—shows antidepressant promise in small clinical trial

Proponents say this short-acting psychedelic, formally known as dimethyltryptamine, could be particularly promising for medicinal use because longer-acting psychedelics can sideline someone for hours after a treatment with hallucinations. DMT is the primary psychoactive ingredient in ayahuasca, a psychoactive brew used across various South American cultures for spiritual, social, and medicinal purposes.

US FDA recently approved the first new schizophrenia drug in decades

Though other antipsychotics block dopamine receptors, a new drug, Cobenfy, influences dopamine levels via a different pathway—it stimulates a pair of specialized receptors in the brain that control the release of a substance called acetylcholine. This alternative approach may help patients avoid serious side effects like weight gain. (Some users may experience a paywall.)

How Western psychedelics research fell to the wayside

Psychedelics' modern era began when LSD was discovered in the 1930s. By the 1950s, clinical trials were underway. US user experimentation outside of medical settings (and high-profile violence, like the Manson murders) inspired negative attitudes toward psychedelics, leading to use restrictions that prohibited companies from patenting psychedelic compounds. This strangled psychedelics' profitability until the 1990s when the government loosened its grip and psychedelics research began seeing a resurgence.

Mental health applications of psychedelics

Scientists are investigating psilocybin, ketamine, LSD, and MDMA (also known as ecstasy) as potential treatments for mental health issues. These drugs enable an altered state of consciousness, which can have beneficial or harmful impacts depending on the nature of the experience. Research suggests these drugs can be effective in treating substance use disorders, mental health conditions, including depression and anxiety, and psychiatric disorders, including schizophrenia.

86 commonly used drugs, including certain antidepressants, painkillers, and immunosuppressants, have different results for men and women, according to recent research.

More than 200 drug trials for Alzheimer's have failed or been abandoned since 2010, but two anti-amyloid infusion medications have netted FDA approval in recent years.

Gut microbiome experiments involving transfers of gut microbes from depressed people to rodents indicate that the rodents may then display depression-like symptoms.

Psychedelics are being fast-tracked for research after a 2026 executive order

Many such compounds (including LSD, psilocybin, and more) are classified as Schedule I drugs—illegal to possess and federally regarded as having no medical use. Researchers say such restrictions have created significant hurdles for formal clinical trials. With this executive order, the FDA will enable work particularly focused on depression, PTSD, and alcohol use disorder.

SAD 101 from the folks at NIMH—where the condition was first identified

Norman Rosenthal led the team at the National Institute of Mental Health that first identified and described seasonal affective disorder in 1984. This 101 from NIMH explores the basics of the condition, from who develops it to how it is treated.

How four types of psychedelics affect the brain

Brain imaging shows that ayahuasca, MDMA, DMT, and psilocybin profoundly affect neural activity, giving rise to higher states of introspection and consciousness. This article details exactly how each of these drugs physically affects the brain and what that means for mental health treatment. Some of these drugs quiet the brain or trigger the release of neurochemicals associated with mood regulation and learning.

Australian psychiatrists already prescribe psilocybin and MDMA for depression and PTSD

The country green lighted the treatments for July 1, 2023, onward, with MDMA—ectasy—as a post-traumatic stress disorder treatment, and psilocybin—magic mushrooms—as an option for people with treatment-resistant depression.

Read Norman Rosenthal’s original 1984 paper describing SAD

The study helped formalize research and diagnosis of seasonal affective disorder, catalyzing the development of therapies (like bright light) and leading to broader adoption of effective treatments. It also helped connect the influence of light and seasons on biological mechanisms in the human body, spurring exploration of circadian rhythms.

Bupropion is the only antidepressant approved for the preventive treatment of SAD

Clinical trials showed a 44% reduction in risk for recurrence of SAD for those who took the drug compared to a placebo group. Bupropion is a norepinephrine–dopamine reuptake inhibitor, which increases dopamine (other common antidepressants, known as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, sometimes can suppress dopamine, but not always).

Psychedelics interact with neurotransmitter systems to alter one's perception

LSD, psilocybin, and MDMA can suppress the brain's default mode network and enhance connectivity. Research shows that, when paired with therapy, psychedelics may help treat mental health conditions, including depression, addiction, and PTSD.

Merck developed MDMA in the early 1900s as part of its effort to create a blood clotting drug

The company's chemists were attempting to synthesize a substance that could compete with an existing patent for the best clot medicine of that time, hydrastinine. MDMA was the byproduct of that effort.

Oxford scientists turned Fleming’s mold discovery into medicine

In 1939, a team at Oxford—including Howard Florey, Ernst Chain, and Norman Heatley—revived Fleming’s forgotten discovery. Using makeshift equipment like bedpans and milk churns, they purified enough penicillin to prove it could treat deadly infections.

Psychedelic drugs are having a scientific renaissance

After decades of repression, psychedelic research is making a resurgence. Hear from a host of experts in this 20-minute video on what that could mean for the future of mental health. The current science on psychedelics believes LSD can cause a particular brain network to quiet or deactivate.

Light therapy was widely used as a medical treatment for various maladies in the early 1900s before it was replaced by antibiotics.

A physician with a rare and deadly disease saved his own life by identifying an existing medication that he repurposed for his condition, and now he's using AI to try to do the same for other patients.

The commercial and therapeutic potential of psychedelics

A 2006 study into the potential therapeutic benefits of psychedelics sparked a renewed interest in the field of psychedelic research, a development that has cascaded into commercialized ventures and experiences. This article details how growing research into the psychological benefits of psychedelics is matched by the rise of anecdotal reports, book deals, businesses, and corporate claims seeking to capitalize on psychedelic potential.

LSD (better known as acid) was created in 1938 by Swiss chemist Dr. Albert Hofmann

Lysergic acid diethylamide, better known as LSD or acid, was first developed synthetically in 1938 by Swiss chemist Dr. Albert Hofmann. It's since become a linchpin for an entire aesthetic, fueled a counterculture movement, and is being studied for potential therapeutic uses.

Aspirin was the first synthesized anti-inflammatory drug

Once used by the ancient Sumarians—extracted from willow bark—but now synthesized in the lab, the active ingredient of this popular medication has been used to treat headaches and pain for thousands of years.

The 'Armamentarium' is a set of new gene therapy tools—including viruses that could shuttle therapies into the body—designed to fight brain diseases.

Psychedelic side effects, including worsening mental health for some patients, give pause

This article explores whether the therapeutic potential of psychedelic drug use is really as good as current research suggests. Scientists are exploring its applications for conditions ranging from the existential crisis that can accompany terminal diagnoses to chronic mental health conditions, including anxiety and PTSD.

How psilocybin could transform mental health treatment

How magical are magic mushrooms, at least where depression is concerned? Some 24 volunteers participated in a study to evaluate the efficacy of using psilocybin in combination with psychotherapy to treat individuals suffering from depression. While some controversies remain about its use—psilocybin is known to cause psychosis sometimes—some scientists think the benefits outweigh the risks.

How the placebo effect became mainstream

Contemporary patients and medical students take the placebo effect for granted, as its a standard element in most drug trials. But the concept was only first debated and standardized in the 1950s after a ground-breaking 1955 paper by medical...

An engineer tracked his moods for decades and helped researchers identify SAD

Civil engineer Herb Kern had bipolar and would record his moods dating back to 1967. He noticed the seasons were a major factor in the increase and severity of his episodes. By reaching out to researchers at the National Institute of Mental Health, Kern became the first human to confirm increased melatonin levels during winter and to receive bright light therapy.

The neurobiology of meaningfulness: the benefits of psychedelics

Psychedelics produce powerful emotions in its users, including a profound sense of meaningfulness. The philosopher William James called this sense "noetic" in the late 19th century, but for decades researchers avoided studying the effects of such drugs on the brain. However, the recent resurgence in psychedelic research has heightened interest in the relationship between this noetic sense resulting from the therapeutic use of drugs. Learn what researchers have found out here.

'Why'd I take speed for twenty years?': an exploration of stimulant ADHD medication

Many people with ADHD are prescribed stimulant medication to assist with symptoms ranging from time blindness to executive dysfunction. This hour-long podcast episode by Search Engine explores the host's experience with ADHD medication and the history of amphetamine and methylphenidate use in the US.

Scientists are reevaluating the causes of Alzheimer's beyond the amyloid hypothesis after numerous experimental drugs designed to target that theory have failed.

LSD fueled a countercultural movement before evolving into a potential therapeutic

As the use of recreational psychedelics became common, authorities were quick to claim LSD had lasting adverse effects, criminalizing the drug and halting scientific study for decades. Over time, LSD's reputation shifted from a potential source of enlightenment to a dangerous drug that could dim a person's future, and back to a possible therapeutic compound.

Six of history's most unethical human experiments, from deliberate flu exposure to withholding syphilis treatment

Some of the progress made in mental health treatment, vaccines, blood transfusions, and more came about before the advent of consent and ethics committees, resulting in serious physical and psychological harm that participants in studies were not even anticipating.

Penicillin is considered one of history’s greatest medical breakthroughs

Experts widely rank penicillin’s discovery among the most important advances in medicine. It launched the antibiotic era, transformed once-deadly infections into treatable illnesses.

Visualize the global supply chain of medicine, which may begin with basic research in the US, but outsource intermediate steps.

LSD was discovered accidentally after its inventor touched his face and hallucinated.

These areas of the brain are hard-hit in depression—but the changes are reversible

Depressed brains can have certain characteristic changes, including an overactive amygdala, reduced hippocampus size, and changes to the thalamus and neuromodulating chemicals in the brain.

Mixed reality technologies may help treat depression

A study led by a team from Stanford University showed that MR can help people with depression by providing pathways to engage in activities such as digital board games and dancing. Participants saw reduced symptoms of depression that made their overall treatment plans more successful.

An overview of 200 years of diabetes treatment

Diabetes treatment became truly effective after the advent of insulin injections in the early 1900s. Diabetes is becoming increasingly common. Current trends estimate one in three Americans will have diabetes by 2050. This overview explores two centuries of diabetes treatment—starting in 1812—and outline potential challenges to treatment and prevention.

Penicillin was hailed as a 'wonder drug' upon its release

When penicillin became widely available in the 1940s, newspapers and doctors alike celebrated it as a “wonder drug” that could cure infections once considered fatal.

The discovery of insulin led to a controversial Nobel Prize in 1923

For centuries, Type 1 diabetes was fatal. The 1920s "discovery" of insulin netted two of its creators—Frederick Banting and his boss, John Macleod—a Nobel prize. Separately, the German doctor Georg Zuelzer synthesized an effective version of the life-saving drug years earlier but was interrupted by World War I.

Explore a database of generic drugs to trace their origins and identify any safety concerns.