Six of history's most unethical human experiments, from deliberate flu exposure to withholding syphilis treatment

Explore the current landscape for patient consent with this 1440 Original video tied to Henrietta Lacks' legacy.

Psychedelic therapy's ethical guidelines (or lack thereof)

With a checkered history of misconduct, how will psychedelic-assisted therapists be held accountable in the emerging legal field? This article explores the nascent field's need for ethical guidelines and clear protection of patient rights when therapeutic breakthroughs teeter "on the edge of consent."

Listen to how the 1902 'poison squad' experiments changed food safety in America

As part of government research, a group of young men were paid to eat standard American food—replete with food additives like borax and formaldehyde—which revealed the dangers of unregulated food. The work was led by the first FDA commissioner, Harvey Wiley, who helped end the "century of the great stomachache."

How the placebo effect became mainstream

Contemporary patients and medical students take the placebo effect for granted, as its a standard element in most drug trials. But the concept was only first debated and standardized in the 1950s after a ground-breaking 1955 paper by medical...

The scandal that rocked stem cell research

In 2014, a Japanese research group published a paper suggesting ordinary cells could be reverted to pluripotent stem cells by subjecting them to external stressors. The results generated interest but could never be replicated. The lead researcher was accused of fraud, and the group’s supervisor committed suicide.

How Western psychedelics research fell to the wayside

Psychedelics' modern era began when LSD was discovered in the 1930s. By the 1950s, clinical trials were underway. US user experimentation outside of medical settings (and high-profile violence, like the Manson murders) inspired negative attitudes toward psychedelics, leading to use restrictions that prohibited companies from patenting psychedelic compounds. This strangled psychedelics' profitability until the 1990s when the government loosened its grip and psychedelics research began seeing a resurgence.

86 commonly used drugs, including certain antidepressants, painkillers, and immunosuppressants, have different results for men and women, according to recent research.

A history of vaccine rollouts

History tells us the public will tolerate risk of harm from a vaccine if their fear of the disease exceeds their fear of the vaccine.

Before vaccines, there was 'variolation': what was it?

Before the technology behind vaccinations was discovered, some keen observers of medicine around the globe noticed how previous infections could impact future ones. Learn about the techniques early physicians used before they had vaccines.

The first line of 'immortal' human cells, which can divide indefinitely and are used in scientific research, was nonconsensually taken from a Black woman.

The spread of fraudulent stem cell treatments

All the coverage of research into promising (but often unproven) medical treatments involving stem cells has created conditions allowing some people to engage in activities regulators describe as scams. As this news article explains, attorneys general in at least seven states have taken legal action against businesses that promised (costly) stem cell treatments but allegedly engaged in fraud.

An account of unethical behavior by psychedelic guides

Ethical guidelines and protections have a gossamer grasp in the underground psychedelics movement. This 34-minute podcast episode delves into patterns of deception and abuse by movement leaders through one source's deeply personal tale. This episode, which involves descriptions of sexual violence, is one of many in New York Magazine's Power Trip series, a nine-part investigation into the darker side of the psychedelic renaissance.

Surgery before the dawn of anesthesia

The arc toward anesthetics was painfully slow, with early pain mitigation offerings ranging from analgesics—drugs that dim pain but don't block it—and numbing surgical sites with cold water to gassing patients with carbon dioxide or bashing or bleeding them unconscious. Such treatments and the torturous surgery they preceded led many to avoid even life-saving procedures, and those who survived often kept silent about the trauma.

Harvard drowned rats for this?

Harvard's 1950s rat study was ethically questionable, but scientifically profound. One rescue attempt made rats swim 40x longer. The finding: hope isn't poetic, it's biological.

Cross-species transplantation has been attempted in medicine for more than 300 years.

The story of the 1945 Minnesota Starvation Experiment

Amid the severe conditions of World War II, researchers were eager to learn the effects of starvation in a controlled study. This podcast dives into a yearlong study of 36 men at a Minneapolis college who endured a six-month period of semi-starvation, where their caloric intake was halved. Results from the experiment became a landmark study in human starvation.

60 years after seeing Henrietta Lacks as a patient, her doctor still remembered the unique cervical tumor that gave rise to the 'immortal' cell line now commonly used in biomedical research—it was purple, shiny, and soft—an appearance he said is very different from a typical tumor.

US federal researchers are blocked from putting certain human cells in animals

In 2015, US policymakers put a halt to any government-funded work that would insert human stem cells into animals. The reasoning was that human cells might spread through the animal's body and perhaps to its brain, blurring the line between humans and nonhumans. The ban remains in place today even as gene-edited pig parts are being placed in humans.

A scientist successfully treated her own breast cancer by injecting the tumor with lab-grown viruses.

Scientists William Russell and Rex Burch proposed in 1959 that when it comes to animal testing, there should be 'three Rs'—replace animals wherever possible; reduce their numbers; refine how they're treated.

Dr. Henry Heimlich, famous for his antichoking technique from the 1970s, was a proponent of controversial and discredited approaches, including infecting cancer and HIV patients with malaria to try to trigger a heightened immune response.

Light therapy was widely used as a medical treatment for various maladies in the early 1900s before it was replaced by antibiotics.

An LSD scientist's role in a US mind control project

Within a decade of LSD's discovery, the US government had launched a secret initiative involving hypnosis and hallucinogens. LSD researcher Louis Jolyon West conducted experiments for the CIA's MKUltra project, which focused on the potential of mind control. He later took part in a criminal trial that hinged on testimony whose sourcing was seemingly inspired by MKUltra experiments. This article explores light shed by West's personal archive.

Experience a century of America's healthcare advances with this medical visualization, tracing a sampling of healthcare innovations from head to toe.

Some UK doctors pushed for broad 'do not resuscitate' orders for autistic adults during COVID

The controversial push was to create such orders without individuals' or their families' consent, underscoring modern-day prejudice against people on the spectrum.

IVF was long considered controversial and ethically dubious

In spite of its wide acceptance as a form of reproductive assistance today, and its role in helping millions of people have children, in vitro fertilization was once considered a controversial threat to society. One magazine went as far as to describe the procedure as "the biggest threat since the atom bomb."

About 70% of the Human Genome Project's reference genome came from one donor

Volunteers who donated blood to the Human Genome Project consented to using no more than 10% of their DNA, raising questions about the project's legality. Listen to how pressure from a private competitor may have driven officials to ignore ethical standards.

The history of brainwashing in America

"Brainwashing" refers to a coerced shift in worldview, often associated with cults or oppressive totalitarian governments. Though such processes are not well understood on a neurological level, they hold an outsized role in public imagination, particularly in science fiction and dystopias. This article reviews the history of the term, first popularized by Edward Hunter in 1950, and the subsequent use of the approach in pop psychology, the CIA, and more.

Psychedelic side effects, including worsening mental health for some patients, give pause

This article explores whether the therapeutic potential of psychedelic drug use is really as good as current research suggests. Scientists are exploring its applications for conditions ranging from the existential crisis that can accompany terminal diagnoses to chronic mental health conditions, including anxiety and PTSD.

American medical organizations rescind recognition of diagnosis cited in police custody deaths

American medical organizations have rescinded their recognition of a syndrome whose theory stemmed from discredited research. This article explores the history and implications of "excited delirium syndrome," a medical condition that can reportedly...

Maryland required cholera researchers to fly a yellow warning flag—signifying quarantine dangers in the 1970s

University of Maryland Hospital researchers intentionally infected volunteers with the cholera bacterium in the late 1970s to further their understanding of the disease. They proceeded with this work following the recommendation of a US government panel. (Some users may encounter a paywall.)

See how antidepressants—used by roughly 1 in 10 Americans—were discovered.

A pediatric journal ran 138 fictional case studies, and 61 were cited as real stories

The Canadian journal Paediatrics & Child Health issued corrections to 138 case studies published since 2000, acknowledging the cases were entirely fictional—a practice intended to protect patient privacy that was never disclosed to readers. At least 61 of the fabricated reports were cited as fact in other peer-reviewed journals a combined 218 times, including a 2006 Lancet article alleging an infant died from opioid-laced breast milk.

Explore the original goals of the Human Genome Project

The project goals emphasized DNA sequencing technologies and methods, which would lead to future treatments of genetic disorders. Exploring the project data's ethical and social implications was also considered.

Two festival-goers were hospitalized after receiving trendy peptide injections, raising safety questions that may extend beyond the event.

When was the first blood transfusion?

In the 1600s, an English doctor transferred the blood from one dog to another via quills. The procedure ended when one of the dogs died. This article details the early days of blood transfusions, which turned toward humans shortly after the 1666 dog experiment and involved putting the blood of a sheep into a human recipient (who reportedly survived the encounter).

Eleven deaf men played a pivotal role in America's human spaceflight program

In the mid-20th century, 11 deaf men volunteered for a series of experiments that offered unprecedented insights into the effects of weightlessness on the human body. Most of the men had become deaf in early childhood as a result of spinal meningitis, a condition known to damage the vestibular system and make them less susceptible to motion sickness. For a decade, these men participated in extreme motion sickness situations, including living in a slowly spinning room, spending time in centrifuge pods designed to simulate hypergravity, and flying in parabolic flights sometimes referred to as the "Vomit Comet." (Some users may experience a paywall.)

Hacking the body for a future that didn't happen

Journalist Adi Robertson experimented with one of the most accessible biohacks: magnets. Having a tiny magnet in their right ring finger meant they could sense magnetic fields, attract small metal objects, and more. But magnets weaken over time, eroding this new sense. Such implants do more than offer a new way of interacting with the world, they also pose new complications, such as the inability to get an MRI.

How to consider the ethics of 3-parent IVF, which is illegal in the US

Ethical concerns with this controversial procedure include that a little bit of a child's offspring would be from a third person and that the decisions made with this pregnancy will affect numerous generations, making a permanent change to the gene pool.

Neural interfaces offer major medical potential but raise serious ethical concerns

Although brain-computer interfaces can help people recover lost functions and allow direct brain-to-computer communication in the future, surveys have shown little public support for using them to boost abilities like memory or focus in healthy people.

Explore the history of antibiotics with 'This Podcast Will Kill You'

The show blends medical history with storytelling and science. In Episode 50, the hosts trace the dramatic origins of antibiotics—from Fleming's moldy petri dish to Florey's wartime labs—and explore their lasting impact on health.

A top Alzheimer's researcher was accused of faking results

In 2021, an investigation revealed photo manipulation in images from a seminal 2006 paper by researcher Sylvain Lesné on the role of amyloid plaques in progressive Alzheimer's disease. The revelation rocked the field, leaving many wondering whether they had tried to build on fabricated results. (Some users may experience a paywall.)

Scientific advances are unlocking a wide range of alternatives to IVF

From refined artificial insemination and microsurgical sperm extraction to experimental uterine transplants, scientific innovation is rapidly advancing potential fertilization technologies. But they come along with costly trials, some ethical dilemmas, regulatory issues, and more.

Psychedelics are being fast-tracked for research after a 2026 executive order

Many such compounds (including LSD, psilocybin, and more) are classified as Schedule I drugs—illegal to possess and federally regarded as having no medical use. Researchers say such restrictions have created significant hurdles for formal clinical trials. With this executive order, the FDA will enable work particularly focused on depression, PTSD, and alcohol use disorder.

Google Search trends reveal truths about society that traditional surveys miss

Studies of human behavior show that survey respondents may lie to present themselves more favorably. By studying anonymous search data, researchers have uncovered hidden racism, mental health struggles, and interest in taboo or stigmatized topics.

'Immortal' HeLa cells—cancerous cells widely used in biomedical research after they were nonconsensually taken from a Black woman named Henrietta Lacks—proliferate easily, causing millions of dollars of damage annually by contaminating lab cell cultures.

Read an excerpt from 'The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks,' the story of the Black woman whose nonconsensually sampled cancerous cells underpin thousands of research papers and several Nobel Prize-winning works.

In 1892, two scientists purposefully infected themselves with cholera bacteria

When they became ill—one with mild diarrhea and the other with severe cholera—researchers pointed to that as proof that the pathogen caused the disease.

Oxford scientists turned Fleming’s mold discovery into medicine

In 1939, a team at Oxford—including Howard Florey, Ernst Chain, and Norman Heatley—revived Fleming’s forgotten discovery. Using makeshift equipment like bedpans and milk churns, they purified enough penicillin to prove it could treat deadly infections.

Mental health applications of psychedelics

Scientists are investigating psilocybin, ketamine, LSD, and MDMA (also known as ecstasy) as potential treatments for mental health issues. These drugs enable an altered state of consciousness, which can have beneficial or harmful impacts depending on the nature of the experience. Research suggests these drugs can be effective in treating substance use disorders, mental health conditions, including depression and anxiety, and psychiatric disorders, including schizophrenia.