See the history of DNA sequencing

Watch how Sanger sequencing kickstarted the first generation of DNA sequencing

Sanger sequencing is a foundational DNA sequencing technology developed in 1977. The Nobel Prize-winning discovery uses fluorescent dyes at the end of DNA chains, which are sorted by length through electrophoresis, to determine the order of nucleotide bases.

Explore the original goals of the Human Genome Project

The project goals emphasized DNA sequencing technologies and methods, which would lead to future treatments of genetic disorders. Exploring the project data's ethical and social implications was also considered.

Genomic sequencing is the process of determining the order of nucleotides that make up an organism's genetic information and can be done in about 24 hours or less for human DNA.

Breaking the genome into random segments accelerated the Human Genome Project

Hierarchical shotgun sequencing is a method for determining an organism's genome by fragmenting DNA before sequencing. By creating fragments with overlapping nucleotide bases, the DNA is reassembled by matching fragment ends.

An overview of the Human Genome Project

The Human Genome Project was a groundbreaking global scientific effort to sequence the genome of humans and several organisms used in scientific research. The sequenced genome was created by combining the DNA of 20 people from Buffalo, New York.

The Human Genome Project spawned numerous spinoff genetics projects

The Human Genome Project led to the development of techniques later applied to projects in microbial and plant biology, epigenomics, environmental and cancer genomes, and more. In the spirit of the HGP, data from these projects has been made freely available to develop new technologies.

Nineteen years after its conclusion, scientists finish what the HGP started

The Human Genome Project mapped 92% of the human genome sequence upon its completion in 2003, leaving unreachable DNA regions unmapped. PacBio HiFi DNA sequencing allowed its completion 19 years later, with the additional mapping of 200 million DNA letters.

See a timeline of the Human Genome Project

Despite starting on October 1, 1990, the goal of mapping all the DNA found in a human being was first planned in 1984. The project would reach its goals two years ahead of schedule in 2003.

The Human Genome Project was forced to accelerate due to a private competitor

Despite a 15-year target when it began in 1990, the Human Genome Project faced competition from Celera Genomics when it entered the sequencing race in 1998. Celera's aim to complete the human genome in three years pressured the HGP to complete their sequencing several years ahead of schedule.

Fully sequenced human genome will help scientists better understand disease

April marks the 20-year anniversary of the completion of the Human Genome Project, a monumental achievement that provided the first map of the human genetic code and advanced our understanding of human biology, disease, and potential treatments....

The Human Genome Project met its goals, but its outcomes were overpromised.

Glowing chemicals allow scientists to read DNA like a barcode

The process of determining the order of nitrogenous bases in DNA involves first cutting the DNA into fragments, which are duplicated multiple times using bacteria. Fluorescently labeled terminator bases are added to fragments, which are sorted by length and read via laser to reconstruct the sequence.

See a timeline of landmark discoveries in the field of genetics to gain a better understanding of more than a century of advances.

Think we decoded the genome in 2000? Nope. It was 2022.

Two decades after the draft sequence of the human genome was unveiled to great fanfare, a team of 99 scientists has finally deciphered the entire thing. They have filled in vast gaps and corrected a long list of errors in previous versions, giving us a new view of our DNA.

How do you sequence a genome?

If the genome is made up of microscopic chromosomes, how do scientists actually sequence it? Here's a 5-minute video explaining one of the most common processes.

In 2025, researchers in the UK began working on developing artificial DNA

The Synthetic Human Genome Project aims to one day construct human DNA, molecule by molecule, in the hopes of creating disease-resistant cells and synthetic chromosomes for study. However, critics warn it may be misused to create enhanced or modified humans.

The $3B project scientists called 'junk'

In 1990, scientists set out to map all of human DNA. A $3B bet many called "junk." But the Human Genome Project's radical transparency and a race with a private company sped it to completion in just 13 years. Today, that once-contested map underpins nearly every breakthrough in genetics and personalized medicine.

All publicly available DNA sequences are available at GenBank

The National Institutes of Health's database stores comprehensive, annotated DNA sequences as part of the International Nucleotide Sequence Database Collaboration. It encourages unrestricted data access within the scientific community while allowing submitters to retain intellectual property rights over their data.

Like counting how often a word is repeated in a sentence, forensic scientists can identify people by tallying how often short segments of genetic information repeat in specific parts of a person's DNA—a set of numbers that varies from person to person.

Visualization of printing synthetic DNA

Ever wonder how synthetic DNA is made? Discover how GenScript uses innovative technology to synthesize precise, high-quality DNA at a larger scale than ever before.

About 70% of the Human Genome Project's reference genome came from one donor

Volunteers who donated blood to the Human Genome Project consented to using no more than 10% of their DNA, raising questions about the project's legality. Listen to how pressure from a private competitor may have driven officials to ignore ethical standards.

Gene therapy, a hope of the Human Genome Project, has successfully treated a baby born with a rare urea cycle disorder that causes toxic ammonia level buildup.

The history of the gene: an interactive timeline

Humans didn’t need modern technology to figure out that kids tend to look like their parents. But what did humans believe about genetics before we knew about DNA or cells in general? Explore this interactive timeline to see how philosophers and scientists throughout the ages tried to explain how traits are passed from generation to generation.

Modern genetic testing stems from a 1950s discovery about the cause of Down syndrome.

DNA computing allows for storage and processing of massive amounts of data

Although costly and less efficient for simpler tasks, as of 2025, DNA could hold 455 exabytes of data with near limitless parallel computation potential in small data centers. Every movie ever made would fit inside the volume of a single sugar cube.

Synthetic biology transforms cells into custom DNA foundries

At companies like Ginkgo Bioworks, researchers are reprogramming cells to act as workshops that can create custom molecules, such as medicines and fertilizers, by stitching together DNA sequences—often in novel combinations—before inserting them into an organism's genome.

Genes are the basic units of heredity

These segments of DNA—long molecules made of nucleotides that coil into chromosomes—code instructions for making specific proteins, which correspond to different traits. Approximately 98 to 99% of human DNA is non-coding, with functions beyond protein synthesis.

See how a novel gene editing technique called base editing can create changes in a single DNA base, using a more precise targeting approach than CRISPR-Cas9.

Bacteria helped scientists realize that DNA was the hereditary molecule, not proteins

Until the mid-1900s, most scientists believed genes were made of proteins, which were known to act as enzymes, hormones, and other chemicals that mediated an organism's traits. The Avery-MacLeod-McCarty and that benign bacteria could be made lethal, where the inherited factor that caused bacterial transformation contained DNA.

Storing data in DNA requires converting binary code into DNA's four-base system

Researchers have suggested that DNA's ability to form compact, dense structures justifies investigating its use for long-term, safe data archiving. This system could fit all of the world's data in a single shoebox, though processing each bit into a nucleotide base takes 2 minutes, as of 2024.

A student researcher working on the Human Genome Project shares their perspective

In a conversation with Ewan Birney, Director of the European Bio-informatics Institute, he discusses what it was like to be a PhD student working on the Human Genome Project in the months before the draft announcement and its impact on him and the field of genetics.

Ancestry testing matches DNA to known genetic variants found in specific ancestries

After a lab receives a person's sample, the DNA is separated into single strands, which are chemically cut into smaller fragments. The fragments are then fed into an array of variants of known origins, and technicians observe if a person's fragments bind to specific variants.

Advance genetic research by playing these scientific video games

Computers produce so much information that researchers can't properly analyze all the data produced, and the overload can also lead computers to make mistakes. Researchers are increasingly turning to citizen scientists—members of the public who are willing to volunteer—to help them make sense of data when computers can't. This article details a few of the ways you can contribute to genetics research by playing video games.

The Golden State killer case spotlights how genetic testing can affect your—and your relatives'—privacy

Police managed to use consumer DNA test results to close a case 32 years after a killer was believed to have committed at least 12 murders and 50 rapes. Their "smoking gun": They compared a DNA sample from the crime scene to genetic data relatives had shared on an open-source genealogy database. The suspect was caught after investigators explored family trees on this database and connected the dots from over 100 distant relatives who had some percentage of DNA that matched the killer. (Some users may encounter a paywall.)

Here’s how different genetic disorders get passed on

The human genome is complex, as identified by the Human Genome Project. This article digs in to genetic disorders, the most common ones, and how they are diagnosed.

The messy story of humanity's genealogical past

For decades, scientists viewed the human fossil record and concluded Neanderthals, an early hominin, came before homo sapiens, or modern humans. The story became more complicated as technology advanced and ancient DNA samples were analyzed. This video breaks down the evidence, concluding the development of humanity was a lot messier than previously believed.

Nature simultaneously published three papers on DNA—only the first made history

Papers by Watson and Crick, Wilkins, and Franklin were fast-tracked without peer review, and their order was arranged between lab heads and editors. Franklin's appeared last, making her paper read as though supporting Watson and Crick—because they'd already incorporated her data before it was published.

Genetic engineering will change everything forever

Designer babies, the end of diseases, genetically modified humans that never age. Outrageous things that used to be science fiction are suddenly becoming reality. As scientists increasingly understand how specific genes cause disease, the possibility of engineering our genes to not only "fix" problems but enhance our natural ability grows.

CRISPR-Cas9 enables precise genome editing using a simple RNA-guided system

Jennifer Doudna's research uncovered how bacteria use the tool as an immune defense by cutting viral DNA. She and Emmanuelle Charpentier received the 2020 Nobel Prize in chemistry for showing how this mechanism could be engineered to target and edit genes in living cells.

Watson and Crick revealed DNA's double-helix structure using others' key findings

Their 1953 model, made from cardboard cutouts, explained how DNA stores genetic information through base pairing. Rather than experimenting and collecting their own data, they incorporated patterns and data from other scientists through trial and error.

What is genetics?

What is a genome, and how are traits passed from generation to generation? Learn how pea plants helped launch the study of genetics and how the field of genetics research has evolved over time.

Around 5 million of our 3 billion DNA letters differ between individuals

Genetic testing examines gene variants to help explain disease symptoms. It explores how genetic differences between individuals can be used to understand risks of developing diseases like Huntington's Disease or passing variants linked to disease onto offspring.

Recombinant DNA technology turns microorganisms into protein factories

Genes for molecules such as insulin can be inserted into loops of bacterial DNA called plasmids and reinserted into bacteria. Once placed in fermentation tanks, these bacteria use the gene to produce these molecules, which are then harvested and purified for eventual use.

View a collection of historical documents about molecular biology's history

The collection features materials related to those involved in the discovery of DNA and provides historical context for the discoveries of RNA, various viruses, and important bioproteins. The items include photographs, business correspondence, manuscripts, and scientific instruments.

Watch how proteins are created from DNA

When a DNA sequence—a gene—is activated, a copy of the activated portion is created in the form of RNA, a single-stranded version of DNA, in a process known as transcription. This RNA, called messenger RNA, leaves the nucleus and travels to a ribosome, a structure within a cell, which uses it to build a chain of organic compounds that fold into a protein.

Strands of DNA can act as biochemical Velcro and fasten two molecules together because the complementary bases that make up DNA strands bond together consistently.

Watch DNA replicate itself before cell division

In the average adult human, between 50 billion and 70 billion cells die daily, requiring them to replicate their genetic instructions before dividing into new cells. This process relies on various proteins to unwind, read, build, and proofread new strands, with error rates of fewer than one per 1 billion nucleotides.

CRISPR turns 10 years old

When Dr. Jennifer Doudna and colleagues released a paper in 2012 demonstrating the ability to harness the cell's natural immunity machinery to edit DNA, it received little fanfare. A decade later, the gene editing technology has led to innovations in medicine, evolution, and agriculture—and raised profound ethical questions about altering human DNA.

Genetic engineering has accelerated millennia of altering various crops' genes

Although farmers have long cross-bred crops to obtain plants with specific colors, sizes, and other characteristics, these processes took significant time. Today, genetic modification in agriculture involves scientists altering an organism's DNA for various purposes, including enhancing pathogen resistance, removing allergens, and delaying spoilage.

Explore the independent lines of evidence behind the theory of evolution

Gradual changes in organisms have been directly observed through artificial selection—humans purposely selecting organisms to breed to pass on specific traits—and in organisms with short lifespans, such as insects and microbes. Analyses of DNA and anatomical structures across different species, as well as fossil records, also reveal ancient shared ancestry consistent with natural selection.