Some Colosseum fighters battled wild animals instead of other humans

How ancient Roman gladiators got ready to rumble

Before they could lay the smackdown in the arena, gladiators were professionally trained, combining a physical regimen with an education in the rules of the ring. Contrary to popular belief, archaeological evidence suggests most gladiators weren't killed in the action, and women may have fought on rare occasions. This article breaks down a life of a Roman gladiator.

Female gladiators fought in Roman arenas, though they were rare

While most gladiators were men, a small number of women also fought in the arena. Their presence fascinated and unsettled Roman audiences, and they adopted stage names invoking Amazons and mythic heroines.

The poet Martial vividly described the Colosseum’s opening games

In "Liber Spectaculorum," Martial recounts the inaugural spectacles at the Colosseum, offering graphic depictions of staged executions—some modeled on Greek myths—that took place during the midday program.

What did it take to eat like a gladiator?

If you think gladiators were all rippling muscle, think again. Evidence suggests fighters weren't as cut as we've been led to believe. This article dives into the diets of ancient Roman gladiators, who may have eaten mostly vegetarian. Archaeological evidence gathered from the skeletons of 68 gladiators found in a 2,000-year-old Turkish grave suggests the fighters' diets mainly relied on barley and legumes, with little animal protein.

Read how Roman writers described gladiators

This article, drawn from an older classical dictionary, synthesizes the views of ancient Roman authors on gladiators. While archaeological knowledge has advanced, the core textual evidence remains the same, with links to translations of the sources.

Gladiators fought in specialized armatures designed only for the arena

This illustrated guide breaks down the most common gladiator armatures, showing how each was highly stylized for spectacle rather than warfare. This explanation suggests why gladiators generally made poor soldiers when drafted into the legions.

Colosseum spectators needed tickets and social rank to get a good seat.

A Roman-era cemetery in York may hold the remains of gladiators

A burial ground in York, used from the 1st to the 4th centuries CE, contained around 80 skeletons of unusually tall and muscular young men. Many show fatal combat wounds, including one with a bite mark from a large predator.

Retired gladiators often became trainers, referees, or exhibition fighters

Few gladiators survived to retirement, but those who did rarely left the arena behind. Many returned for high-pay exhibition bouts, trained new fighters, served as referees, or leveraged their fame into unexpected careers, including local politics.

Hear how gladiator fights were funded, judged, and sometimes fixed

In a wide-ranging interview, Professor Michael Carter unpacks the business of gladiatorial games—from advertising and fighter merch to referees, match rules, and a code of conduct that often pushed gladiators to spare defeated opponents.

The high-tech mechanisms of the Roman Colosseum

The Roman Colosseum is one of the most iconic amphitheaters in the world and still partially stands today. Aside from its sheer size, the arena was equipped with some of the most high-tech engineering from the classical world, including sophisticated lifts, a huge retractable awning, and an underground network of tunnels, elevators, and trapdoors.

A recently discovered fresco in Pompeii depicts gladiators fighting

Archaeologists uncovered a gladiator combat fresco beneath a shop staircase in Pompeii. Its location suggests it decorated a low-end tavern near the gladiator barracks—possibly a hangout for fighters themselves.

Emperor Commodus fought as a gladiator while ruling Rome

Commodus, who reigned from 180–192 CE, scandalized Rome’s elite by appearing in the arena despite being the son of Marcus Aurelius. The ancient biography—though partly fictional—captures the shock his gladiatorial performances provoked.

See third-century mosaics inside a Roman villa, which show gladiator games

Discovered at Nennig, these third-century CE mosaics depict gladiators, animal hunts, and arena musicians. Set in a lavish villa atrium, they likely commemorated games sponsored by the estate’s wealthy owner.

Gladiator training is known mainly from art, not ancient texts

Since literary sources provide little information about gladiator training, scholars rely on visual evidence. This illustrated essay draws on artifacts from the Metropolitan Museum of Art, including an oil lamp from Cyprus showing a gladiator practicing against a wooden stake.

Gladiators followed a mostly vegetarian, high-calcium diet

Analysis of skeletons from a gladiator cemetery at Ephesus by researchers at the Medical University of Vienna found little meat consumption but unusually high calcium levels—likely from drinking wood ash mixed with water to promote weight gain and protect vital organs.

Roman gladiator referees wore tunics and carried switches

Drawing on visual and textual evidence, a Roman social historian shows that referees were a constant presence in gladiatorial combat. Rather than armor, they wore striped tunics and used long switches to signal fouls and control fights from a safe distance.

Medieval bestiaries blended real animals with myth and moral lessons

Medieval bestiaries combined observed animals with fantastical creatures, using vivid imagery to convey symbolism and moral meaning. This lecture explores England’s Worksop Bestiary (c. 1185), showcasing over 100 illustrated beasts from the Morgan Library’s collection.

A Roman mosaic records the outcome of a retiarius–secutor fight

Displayed at the National Archaeological Museum, this mosaic depicts the classic retiarius–secutor battle. The lower panel shows the bout under referees’ supervision; the upper panel declares Astyanax vicit, with a symbol confirming his opponent was killed.

Spartacus: Enslaved ancient Roman gladiator turned revolt leader

Sold into slavery and forced to be a gladiator, Spartacus ultimately took the fight outside the arena and revolted against the Romans. This article dives into the history of the rebel leader. Spartacus was originally from Thrace, a part of ancient Europe that included parts of modern-day Bulgaria, Turkey, and Greece. Exactly what led to his enslavement is unclear, but it likely involved ancient Rome's attempt to subjugate Thrace.

Exploring the Hippodrome of Constantinople

The Hippodrome had room for about 80,000 spectators (more than the Colosseum, but less than Rome’s Circus Maximus). It was simultaneously Constantinople’s premier entertainment venue and its greatest political theater: the emperor routinely watched the games, and sometimes communicated with the crowd through a herald. The worst riot in Byzantine history, the Nika Revolt, began when the factions of the Hippodrome united in opposition to Justinian.

Wildlife use Rome's sprawling archaeological sites as urban havens

The Italian capital features some of the world's most famous monuments as the inheritor of ancient Rome's grandeur. This photo essay explores the city's vibrant collection of wildlife, including long-concealed native crabs, peregrine falcons, and the beaver-like nutria.

Synchronized swimming dates back to Ancient Rome

Known for gruesome gladiatorial contests, ancient Rome's aquatic spectacles may have been even more over-the-top. This article dives into the art of synchronized swimming in ancient Rome. Lakes were dug and amphitheaters flooded to provide space for aquatic reenactments of naval battles and artistic performances. Swimmers playing the role of water nymphs would create elaborate shapes, including ships with billowing sails.

Roman terror was key to its centuries-long dominance

Historians like Polybius recorded Rome's violent tactics in detail, including the enslavement of entire populations and the mass killing of whole cities. Even as terror and violence proved effective in war, many Romans came to view the tactics with skepticism.

Bear-baiting was another form of entertainment during Shakespeare’s time

We tend to think of Shakespeare’s audiences as prim and proper, but the Bard’s shows were just another form of amusement, viewed by commoners as entertainment not unlike the animal blood sports that were similarly popular during the time period.

Crowds used a thumb gesture to decide whether a gladiator lived or died

This explainer unpacks pollice verso, the hand signal spectators used to call for a gladiator’s execution. Ancient sources never specify the direction; evidence suggests that the thumb was likely turned up or thrust toward the throat, not down.

A day in the life of a Roman soldier

In 15 CE, Roman legionary Servius Felix was eight years into a 25-year career as a warrior for the Empire. Born to a poor farmer who hoped to retire and receive several acres of land, Servius served amid fights with Germanic tribes from the north. He hopes to marry a woman back home and mourns the loss of his fallen friends.

The story of Sporus, the castrated boy who married Emperor Nero

Ancient Romans’ views of homosexuality are quite different from Western understandings. Nero was an emperor is infamous for his cruelty, and appears to have heaped that cruelty upon Sporus, a boy he fell for and married in a public ceremony. As a slave, Sporus was held captive at the whims of Nero and subject to the class-based rules on same-sex relationships in ancient times.

See unused gladiator helmets discovered in Pompeii.

Ancient Romans were registered in lists of citizens to confirm their identity

Falsely claiming to be a Roman citizen was a capital offense, but taking up another identity was one way people could change their lot. Several accounts report how escaped enslaved people sought freedom by pretending to be citizens, and multiple "Neros" appeared after the real emperor died in 68 CE.

See how the elite warriors of the Aztec Empire trained

This video explores the Aztec military’s elite Eagle and Jaguar warriors, known for their courage and combat skills, and highlights their rigorous training regimen. It concludes with a workout routine modeled on their methods.

Spartacus led a 70,000-strong slave army that defeated Roman forces

After escaping a gladiator school in Capua, Spartacus led the largest slave revolt in Roman history, routing Roman armies before being crushed by forces under the command of Crassus and Pompey. Later generations recast him as a symbol of resistance.

The marathon was not an event in the ancient form of the Olympics

The ancient Olympics started with just one footrace, a roughly 3-mile jaunt dubbed the "dolichos." Over the centuries, it blossomed into multiple running events, field events, combat sports, and equestrian events—all performed in the nude. This list showcases eight more lesser-known facts about the ancient Games.

Watch how wild animals are projected into a mall

Centered around a dynamic, ever-changing watering hole, the experience allows you to meet a diverse range of animals from Africa to the Arctic as they graze, drink, and interact with the environment around them.

Rome's legendary founders Romulus and Remus were raised by a she-wolf

Romulus and Remus escaped slaughter by drifting downriver in a basket. Once ashore, the two were nurtured by a wolf and woodpecker, growing strong enough to build Rome. This story may date back to the fourth century BCE and contains Roman and Greek elements.

Pompeii’s ruins expose the brutal realities of Rome’s sex trade

Drawing on graffiti, slave collars, brothel art, and the story of “Eutychis, a Greek lass with sweet ways,” this piece reconstructs the violent, coercive world of Pompeii’s enslaved prostitutes—and how their owners controlled, renamed, and exploited them.

River dolphins manhandle an unlucky anaconda

The natural world around us is endlessly inspiring, and fascinating, and often very odd too: like when researchers snapped a photo of Bolivian river dolphins swimming around with a Beni anaconda snake in their mouths, for example.

What ancient goat teeth reveal about ancient human-animal relationships

About 4,000 years ago, several goats with terrible teeth managed to outlive their better-teethed brethren. With such intense dental damage, the goats were likely fed higher-quality feed than the more dentally gifted herd members, a dietary shift that would've contributed to the difference in life span. These goat teeth underscore the hard truth that humans may inflict harm on the animals they care about most, regardless of intention.

Bad Ancient: a site to fact-check claims about the ancient world

Peruse popular questions about ancient Rome, Egypt, Greece, and more, from whether Greek boxers were ripped or to what extent Alexander the Great conquered the world.

A reading of ancient Rome's best graffiti

Graffiti has been surprisingly common throughout history, and even the grandeur of ancient Rome's walls wasn't spared. This clever and funny video reads through some of the more notable messages relayed via graffiti in ancient Rome, from tidbits of wisdom like "A small problem gets larger if you ignore it" to more unsavory observations of lovers, friends, and enemies.

Supertoxic rat poisons are wreaking havoc on unintended targets, including predator birds, mammals, amphibians, crustaceans, and insects.

Pets of ancient Greece: crickets and ferrets and hedgehogs, oh my!

Ancient Greece left behind literature and art in which geese, doves, dogs, and the like are seen keeping people company or holding vigil for their return. Were these considered pets as we understand the term today, and where did ancient Greeks fall on the timeless question of cats versus dogs? Did Odysseus let Argos onto the sofa? This magazine article explores evidence of pets and their treatment in ancient Greece.

What was the Great Fire of Rome?

In the hours between July 18 and 19 in 64 CE, the glittering capital of ancient Rome became engulfed in flames. This 46-minute podcast details the Great Fire of Rome that destroyed much of the city, according to historical literary sources. The fire burned for nine days after starting at market stalls near the Palatine Hill and the Circus Maximus, one of the city's largest chariot racing stadiums. The fire's cause remains unknown.

See artifacts from the ancient Olympics at the Met.

Ancient Greek and Roman sculptures were likely colorful, not white

Archaeologists stumbling upon statues from ancient Greece often found weathered creatures, their faces and figures marred by age and conflict. But evidence of polychromy—painting sculptures with color—has continued to mount.

The Greeks weightlifted using massive stones and admired strength—but they viewed muscles differently

Elephant bones likely inspired the cyclops character that appears in 'The Odyssey.'

Wojtek the bear fought for Poland in World War II

Wojtek was a Syrian brown bear who eventually became a mascot, symbol, and eventually a soldier attached to the Polish II Corps during World War II. Learn about the amazing Wojtek, the Polish II Corps, and the incredible history of the Polish soldiers, many of whom had been imprisoned by the Germans or Soviets, who served during World War II.

The human cost of creating medieval monsters

The concept and creation of monsters have been used since time immemorial to communicate social norms and the consequences of breaking them. Some so-called monsters were judged as such solely due to having features that would be considered birth defects in modern times. This in-depth article explores the human cost of creating medieval monsters, many of whom were defined by a physical appearance that deviates from the expected.

The archaeology of human sacrifice

Human sacrifice appears in cultures around the globe. But how do we know that to be true? Scientists can tell the difference between ritual sacrifice and mass graves better explained by war and political instability. Learn how in this article about...