Men and women didn't evolve to perform segregated hunter-gatherer duties

The evolution of the human diet

Could eating like our ancestors make us healthier? One estimate suggests prehistoric hunter-gatherer communities obtained 75% of their calories from meat and fish.

Three examples of how humans are still evolving

For much of nature, natural selection and "survival of the fittest" still play a dominant role; only the strongest can survive in the wild. As little as a few hundred years ago, the same was true for humans, but what about now?

Scientists have not yet answered what the evolutionary benefit may be of menopause

Few animals are known to experience menopause, raising questions about why it would be evolutionarily advantageous to have women survive past their reproductive years. One leading hypothesis is the grandmother hypothesis—older women and other species known to experience menopause, like whales, can aid families and pass down knowledge to future generations.

Human origins 101

Learn about the over 20 early human species that belong in our family tree and how the natural selection of certain physical and behavioral traits defined what it means to be human.

Human anatomy provides evidence for evolution

Throughout history, scientists have used anatomy to support the Theory of Evolution in three main ways. Homologous structures, or similar physical features in organisms that serve different functions, can help scientists understand common ancestors....

Neanderthal stereotypes fall flat in the face of evidence, advocates argue

Picture a Neanderthal in all their knuckle-dragging, loin cloth-wearing glory. Now, throw that picture away. This article dives into the rising tide of academic advocates for Neanderthals, a human ancestor that went extinct about 40,000 years ago.

Did agriculture give rise to inequality?

This article explores how economic and social inequality relates to the rise of agriculture. About 10,000 years ago, some hunter-gatherers started farming, launching what came to be known as the Neolithic revolution. Hunting and gathering allowed...

Why are there as many males as females?

Pretty much every species breaks down with an equal sex-ratio, with roughly the same number of males as females. But on the surface, it appears that most species wouldn't need many males to keep the population growing, with their energy-efficient, abundant sex cell production. So why is it equal? Scientists argue an equal ratio is the most evolutionarily stable. Learn about this quirk of biology here.

Here's how early humans lived

Explore the evidence of early human behavior—from ancient footprints to stone tools and the earliest symbols and art – along with similarities and differences in the behavior of other primate species.

Why portraits of Neanderthals vary so drastically

Neanderthals, humanity's long-lost genealogical cousins, are often portrayed as bumbling, hairy, cave-dwelling misogynists. But other efforts show tall, dignified creatures not too different from contemporary people. This article explores why most visual interpretations of Neanderthals are more in the service of social or political beliefs instead of science.

Why humans survived and smarter species did not

This interview with Joseph Henrich, a renowned professor of human evolutionary biology, unpacks human history. Henrich shares interesting information about why humans succeeded as a species (the answer isn't IQ), how cultural evolution works, why the human brain is shrinking, and how the Catholic Church played a role in the Industrial Revolution. Listen and watch for a deep dive into human evolution.

Should you eat an all-meat diet?

The carnivore diet is reportedly a way of eating inherited from human ancestors, a tale that has roots in anthropology's early days. This article explores the all-meat diet's ancestral claims and what happens if you cut vegetables and fruits from...

The messy story of humanity's genealogical past

For decades, scientists viewed the human fossil record and concluded Neanderthals, an early hominin, came before homo sapiens, or modern humans. The story became more complicated as technology advanced and ancient DNA samples were analyzed. This video breaks down the evidence, concluding the development of humanity was a lot messier than previously believed.

Were humans the only hominin to walk upright?

When you imagine the line human evolution has taken, you might picture the March of Progress, an image of several chimp-like ancestors marching toward the implied final form: the upright bipedal Homo sapiens. Turns out this image, popularized in the...

The Archaic period marked Native Americans' shift from big-game hunting to foraging

Beginning around 8000 B.C.E., Indigenous peoples began relying on diverse food sources—including wild game, plants, seeds, and fish—and moved away from large-mammal hunting. Archaeological findings from this era suggest some communities began cultivating crops and establishing irrigation systems, indicating a shift toward less-nomadic lifestyles.

Even in recent history, adaptations to the environment drove human evolution

Through genetics, environmental pressures, and cultural influences, humans have evolved to tolerate lactose, develop varying skin pigmentation, and acquire genetic resistance to diseases like bubonic plague. The metabolic and digestive systems of Indigenous peoples have adapted to their diet, which is influenced by the availability of food and water.

How do we know what prehistoric humans ate?

Without recourse to ancient menus, how can historians know what our ancient human ancestors—as far as 3 million years ago—ate on a daily basis? Researchers evaluate several factors, including the type of teeth the species had evolved, chemical analysis of the teeth, patterns of wear and tear on teeth, as well as food scraps found in the vicinity of ancient remains. Learn the approach to discovering ancient hominin diets.

Ancient humans and other early hominins were closer than you might think

Evidence that human ancestors and other early hominins coexisted continues to accumulate, raising the question of just how close these ancient people truly were. This article details how evidence is changing the theory that early hominins like...

Why humans evolved single-child pregnancies

While birthing twins has been a rare occurrence for humans, research suggests that twins were actually the norm much further back in primate evolution. It’s proposed that single-childbearing turned out to be critical for the evolution of larger babies with larger heads. Discover more about the shift that gives insight into primate evolution.

The gaps in menopause research and their effects

Nearly all studies (99%) researching the biology of aging don’t consider menopause in their setup. A Harvard professor noted that about 75% of aging-related diseases are likely influenced by menopause. In this article, she discusses how gaps in research are negatively impacting how the medical system can effectively treat aging women. Read her analysis of the issue here.

New scientific tools, such as radiocarbon dating and DNA analysis, have transformed what we know about who built Stonehenge.

Techniques such as radiocarbon dating, DNA analysis, and isotopic testing have revised scholars' understanding of Stonehenge. This article presents evidence suggesting that societies were more cooperative and less violent than earlier theories had suggested.

Neanderthals 101

Who were the neanderthals? Do humans really share some of their DNA? Learn facts about Neanderthal man, the traits and tools of Homo neanderthalensis, and how the species fits into our evolution story.

Explore the independent lines of evidence behind the theory of evolution

Gradual changes in organisms have been directly observed through artificial selection—humans purposely selecting organisms to breed to pass on specific traits—and in organisms with short lifespans, such as insects and microbes. Analyses of DNA and anatomical structures across different species, as well as fossil records, also reveal ancient shared ancestry consistent with natural selection.

The Greeks weightlifted using massive stones and admired strength—but they viewed muscles differently

Optimal human functioning requires movement

There is now ample evidence to back the centuries-old hypothesis that exercise is critical to human health. This review article explores the latest discoveries in exercise science, including how exercise is intrinsic to maintaining our organ systems throughout life.

The archaeological discovery that shifted scientists' understanding of human evolution

In 2003, archaeologists in Indonesia uncovered the remains of a 3-foot-tall skeleton that appeared to belong to a new type of human. Read this article to learn how the discovery of this 50,000-year-old skeleton upended the idea that human evolution...

Homo sapiens may have migrated into Europe earlier than previously believed

Archaeologists used to believe that Homo sapiens migrated to Europe from Africa about 42,000 years ago, at about the time that Neanderthals went extinct. This 27-minute podcast episode explores new evidence that suggests Homo sapiens migrated about...

Human ancestors: a guide

Modern humans are not the only creatures classified as part of the Homo genus. This article examines the eight other humans that fall under the Homo umbrella.

Is human evolution speeding up or slowing down?

In the past 3,000 years, many populations have evolved genetic adaptations to their local environments. People in Siberia and the high arctic are uniquely adapted to survive extreme cold. The Bajau people can dive 70 meters and stay underwater for almost 15 minutes. So what are other recent changes? And will our technological innovations impact our evolution?

There are five key mechanisms—small population size, nonrandom mating, mutation, gene flow, and natural selection—that drive evolution, or the change in the abundance of specific genetic traits found within a population.

Women's health research continues to be underfunded

Health conditions that affect women more than men get less research funding. This interactive collection of graphs details the gendered gap in health research funding. Of the conditions that affect one sex more than another, those that create the...

The Paranthropus genus, our mysterious extinct cousins

In the last century, skull and jaw fragments have been discovered in East Africa suggesting an ancient hominin species lived, evolved, and died alongside humanity's ancestors. With large, broad skulls and strong jaws, the Paranthropus genus—which includes several related species—is an absorbing case of the effects of niche partitioning, where species coexist by adapting differently to the environment. Paranthropus died out and human ancestors endured. Find out why here.

The role of fire in the evolution of humanity's big brains

Roughly 1.5 million years ago, the brain size of our hominin ancestors exploded. To understand why, Richard Wrangham posited the cooking hypothesis, arguing the adoption of fire as a means to cook food had a lasting impact on our ability to digest...

'Men's groups' seek to offer deeper authenticity and personal growth

These formalized gatherings of men involve meaningful check-ins and sharing of daily experiences with the goal of personal growth. They are typically founded with the intention of bringing together men who want to examine their life and relationships, seek personal growth, and explore their ongoing relationship with masculinity and manhood.

Matrilineal societies—where women led households—were common among Northeastern natives

Such societies also viewed women as leaders in spiritual matters. Both men and women held political roles as clan leaders and worked in tandem with an advisory council.

Divorce reportedly existed in hunter-gatherer societies

Though divorces have been around for centuries and have become increasingly common, they can still be perceived with hints of shame. Historian Stephanie Coontz advises readers that the good old days of marriage may have been just as bad as today, considering its prevalence throughout history.

Why genetic similarities between humans suggest a past near-extinction event

Researchers have found that low genetic diversity among humans—even those on opposite sides of the planet—may result from a breeding population of as few as 1,280 adults, estimated to have existed 930,000 years ago. This genetic bottleneck may have resulted from a near-extinction or from a small population of human ancestors, from which we all descend, that broke off from a larger population.

Marriage is experiencing a general decline

Marriage has taken drastically different forms than in the past. The transformation of marriage from a form of economic dependency for women to an equal partnership has forged demographic shifts. Richard Reeves, author of "Of Boys and Men," explains how economic and educational factors have potentially destabilized partnerships and changed patterns of “marriageability” for middle- and lower-class men.

Humans may be the ultimate invasive species

Originating in East Africa, Homo sapiens migrated across the world beginning about 60,000 years ago and directly harmed countless species by consuming resources and modifying ecosystems to serve our needs. While meeting the definition of an invasive species, some ecologists argue the opposite, claiming that humans have helped preserve numerous species.

One researcher posed a theory that aliens played a significant role in human evolution

Researcher Zecharia Sitchin proposed that Sumerian cuneiform tablets revealed that Sumerian gods were aliens who landed on Earth in Mesopotamia and influenced the creation of modern humans. While his ideas gained cultural interest, they are widely rejected by mainstream scholars.

Sex determination isn't all XX and XY

We're generally taught that chromosomes determine an animal's sex, but it is way more nuanced than that. Watch this 12-minute video to find out how.

Herd behavior has been seen in 193-million-year-old dinosaur fossils

Scientists excavated eggs, juveniles, and adult remains in Patagonia, all arranged by age group. The organization into structured groups may have contributed to evolutionary success by consolidating eggs in one location to make defending them easier.

Less than 1% of aging studies consider menopause and its effects

Nearly all studies researching the biology of aging don't consider menopause in their setup. In part, that's because menopause is difficult to emulate in animal models. Menopause is uncommon in the animal world beyond humans and whales. This presents a problem for medicine and science because about 75% of aging-related diseases are likely influenced by menopause.

A 15-year bibliographic analysis identified systematic gender bias across Wikipedia

A 2024 study by the University of Barcelona found that 71.4% of all English biographies that appear on the front page are about men, and approximately one in five editors are women. Researchers suggest systemic imbalances in society further diminish women's contributions to the site by leaving them with less time to defend edits during editorial disputes.

Bowling was long male-dominated, but women pushed for change through the sport

The sport was often played on lawns attached to breweries and became a leisure activity for folks in taverns—mostly men, in the 1800s. But the game's highly communal nature attracted a more diverse set of participants who pushed for social change.

Almost 80% of people diagnosed with autoimmune diseases are women

Yet it's still unanswered what may account for that difference. To better understand this disparity researchers are exploring factors including hormonal changes that occur around puberty, pregnancy, and menopause, as well as gut microbe differences, and aspects of X-chromosome protein-coding genes. (Some users may encounter a paywall.)

What did it take to eat like a gladiator?

If you think gladiators were all rippling muscle, think again. Evidence suggests fighters weren't as cut as we've been led to believe. This article dives into the diets of ancient Roman gladiators, who may have eaten mostly vegetarian. Archaeological evidence gathered from the skeletons of 68 gladiators found in a 2,000-year-old Turkish grave suggests the fighters' diets mainly relied on barley and legumes, with little animal protein.

How humans evolved from single-cell organisms

Humans have had a long history. 3.8 billion years in the making, to be precise. From the primordial puddle to the modern day, here's how humans have evolved from the first life.

Did people domesticate plants or did plants domesticate us?

Humans rely on plants to survive, and many plants have come to rely on humans. This 14-minute video explores how agriculture was simultaneously a building block of civilization and a trap that captured humanity. Plant types that may not have...

Why Men's Legs Were Everything

From codpieces to cotton hose, here's the surprisingly loaded history of men's legs, and why 18th-century Europe couldn't stop staring at them.