How the Montreal Protocol made CFCs the most valuable Miami contraband after cocaine

How a black market for banned refrigerants still threatens ozone recovery and climate progress

Despite the Montreal Protocol's success, illegal trade in chlorofluorocarbons, hydrochlorofluorocarbons, and hydrofluorocarbons persists. Driven by high profits and weak enforcement, smugglers supply banned refrigerants, causing significant ozone depletion and greenhouse gas emissions equivalent to billions of tons of carbon dioxide.

Why a Montreal Protocol amendment cut back on the replacements for CFCs

Hydrofluorocarbons were introduced in the 1990s as ozone-safe substitutes for chlorofluorocarbons and hydrochlorofluorocarbons. However, scientists later found that they trap thousands of times more thermal energy in the atmosphere than carbon dioxide does, prompting a 2016 amendment to the Protocol to phase them out.

The history of the Montreal Protocol, the only universally ratified treaty in UN history

Mario Molina and F. Sherwood Rowland discovered that chlorofluorocarbons released chlorine atoms that could break down molecules making up the protective ozone layer. Despite attempts to discredit scientists and economic concerns raised by politicians, the agreement to phase out ozone-depleting substances was signed in 1987.

How amendments to the Montreal Protocol have expanded global ozone protections

Since 1990, five major amendments—London, Copenhagen, Montreal, Beijing, and Kigali—have accelerated chemical phase-outs, added new substances, such as hydrochlorofluorocarbons, and tightened enforcement.

The Montreal Protocol helped prevent significant quantities of greenhouse gas emissions

By phasing out ozone-depleting chemicals between 1990 and 2010, the Montreal Protocol prevented emissions equal to 135 gigatons of CO₂—avoiding an estimated 0.5 to 1 degrees Celsius of additional global warming by 2100.

Why is cocaine worth so much?

The global cocaine trade is worth an estimated $100B a year. But, where does that money go, who is spending it, and who is making it? Vice follows the money to understand why the cocaine business functions the way it does. From illicitly growing...

How sunlight helps chlorofluorocarbons destroy the ozone molecules that block solar radiation

CFCs, which are used in old refrigerants, air conditioners, and aerosol sprays, do not react with atmospheric molecules. Once they reach the stratosphere, ultraviolet radiation breaks chlorine atoms off of them, which can each break apart more than 100,000 ozone molecules, thinning Earth's protective layer against ultraviolet radiation.

How the Montreal Protocol supported developing nations in phasing out ozone-depleting substances

Established in 1991, the Multilateral Fund for the Montreal Protocol finances developing nations' transition to cleaner technologies. It has disbursed more than $4B across more than 140 countries and was the first financial mechanism created under an international treaty.

Cocainenomics

How did Pablo Escobar rise up out of the Medellin barrios to become the CEO of a $4 billion business? This immersive look at the global drug trade spawned by the notorious drug lord, who at his peak controlled 80% of the cocaine supply in the US. This deep dive includes visualizations showing how logistics of drug smuggling evolved over the years and traces the economic impact of the industry.

Fluorinated molecules are the most impactful, longest-lasting greenhouse gases

Developed as replacements for ozone-depleting substances in refrigeration and air conditioning systems, these compounds are released through leaks in and ongoing use of these appliances, as well as from various industrial processes. They can remain in the atmosphere for thousands of years and have warming potentials that are a thousand to tens of thousands of times greater than those of carbon dioxide.

Why Belgium is now the cocaine capital of Europe

Belgium has become Europe's cocaine-trafficking capital. Recently, Belgian ports have seen record seizures of cocaine. In 2020, the port of Antwerp accounted for 40% of all cocaine seizures in the EU. And local authorities are struggling with the...

A map of global drug trafficking

The worldwide illegal drug trade continues to flourish. Accounting for almost 1% of the world’s financial revenue, the cocaine trade alone boasts an annual turnover of an estimated $85 billion. This infographic, from Around the World: An Atlas for...

Some invasive species' populations have been controlled by turning them into cash crops that can be harvested and sold to produce useful materials.

Go inside the global effort that led to the Montreal Protocol in this narrative podcast

Nobel laureate Mario Molina and other key voices recount how science and diplomacy converged to develop a plan to close the ozone hole, offering insight into history's most successful environmental treaty.

How scientists earned themselves a Nobel Prize by discovering what destroyed ozone

In 1974, chemists Mario Molina and F. Sherwood Rowland showed that chlorofluorocarbons—then used as aerosol propellants, refrigerants, and industrial solvents—rise into the stratosphere and, upon being struck by ultraviolet radiation, release chlorine atoms, which break apart ozone molecules. Their work earned them the Nobel Prize in chemistry in 1995.

Meet a government agent who laundered millions of dollars for Pablo Escobar.

Learn why the Montreal Protocol may help prevent millions of cancer deaths

By restoring the ozone layer and reducing ultraviolet exposure, full implementation of the Montreal Protocol is expected to prevent about 443 million cases of skin cancer, 2.3 million skin cancer deaths, and 63 million cases of cataracts among Americans born from 1890 to 2100.

View when each UN member signed the Montreal Protocol

Adopted in 1987 to phase out ozone-depleting substances, the agreement achieved universal ratification by all 197 UN member states, making it the first and only such international treaty in the UN's history.

Watch the craziest ways cartels traffic drugs

The war on drugs has forced cartels to be increasingly creative when it comes to smuggling drugs. As police develop methods to catch smugglers, drug traffickers come up with new ways to get their products from producer to seller to buyer. This cycle...

Cardboard thieves are making millions

The global market for recycled cardboard is worth billions of dollars—and it's attracting criminals. Specifically, people are making a fortune from taking used cardboard that's been left outside to be recycled, then proceeding to sell it. As a result, legitimate recycling firms and local authorities are missing out on millions. Learn more here.

Countries tried to curb plastic waste, but the US keeps shipping more

Data show that American exporters continue to ship plastic waste overseas, often to poorer countries, even though most of the world has agreed to not accept it.

Hear firsthand how scientists and policymakers saved the ozone layer

In this episode, atmospheric chemist Susan Solomon and Protocol architect Stephen Andersen recount how scientific discovery, diplomacy, and public pressure drove the Montreal Protocol—and share lessons for tackling climate change.

Why caviar is still so expensive, even though it's no longer rare

An ounce of caviar can cost more than $250, even though China has flooded the market with a surge in supply over the past decade. As it turns out, the perception of caviar as a luxury good rather than a true scarcity is part of what keeps it so expensive.

How a skin cancerous growth shifted an initially skeptical President Reagan on the ozone crisis

While a 1985 Nature study revealing the Antarctic ozone hole jolted public concern, Reagan's administration was more focused on the Cold War than on environmental policy. His health scare and the market potential for developing alternatives to chlorofluorocarbons helped turn the tide, leading to the Montreal Protocol's unanimous ratification by a bipartisan Senate in 1988.

Carbon markets incentivize companies to cut emissions but require high carbon prices

To reduce greenhouse gas emissions, a cap-and-trade system issues a limited number of emissions permits—carbon credits—that decrease each year, cutting into a company's profits if it does not reduce emissions and must buy permits from others. However, cheap permits and minimal fines for lacking permits have reduced the system's effectiveness.

As of 2025, an estimated $3.2B in annual revenue flows through dark web platforms

The untraceable cryptocurrency Monero is used in about 60% of transactions across more than 37 active marketplaces that sell copyrighted materials, private information, and phishing kits—tools that help bad actors more easily create fake sites to steal users' data—for financial fraud.

The ozone layer is on track to recover to pre-1980 levels by mid-century

Thanks to the Montreal Protocol, the ozone layer is steadily recovering and, according to a 2022 assessment, is expected to return to 1980 levels by 2040 globally, 2045 over the Arctic, and 2066 over Antarctica.

Why the Antarctic climate enabled British scientists to discover the ozone hole

In the Antarctic stratosphere, polar conditions facilitate the formation of polar stratospheric clouds, which allow chlorine compounds from chlorofluorocarbons to accumulate. In 1985, British Antarctic Survey scientists detected massive springtime losses over Antarctica, as accumulated compounds destroyed significant amounts of ozone once sunlight returned.

Michael Sveda discovered cyclamate by accident

When this lab researcher brought his hands to his lips to smoke his cigarette in 1937, he tasted something sweet, which he called cyclamate. It was quickly used in diet sodas, but it was banned from the US in 1969 after being linked to rodent bladder cancer in lab experiments.

The US dollar is the most popular note to counterfeit

Counterfeit operations are often controlled by rogue governments, drug cartels, and more. These organized crime rings often sell counterfeit bills wholesale, for anywhere between 40 and 70 cents per dollar.

Hormone and peptide compounds imported from China soared in 2025

US customs data indicates that these imports doubled to $328M in the first three quarters of 2025, from $164M in the same period of 2024. The imports include GLPs, among other products. (Some users may experience a paywall.)

Cocaine financed Uruguayan soccer player Sebastián Marset's childhood dream

Sebastián Marset was one of the most successful drug traffickers in South America. In order to launder the profits from his cocaine empire, he bought and sold professional soccer teams—which he played on.

Drug trafficking in the MENA

The Middle East and North Africa is a major source, transit point, and consumer of illicit drugs. Despite having some of the harshest penalties for drug-related crimes, the region both influences and is negatively impacted by illicit substance abuse...

Mapping where the drug captagon is seized worldwide

In the 1960s, Captagon was patented in Germany as a stimulant similar to amphetamines. It was prescribed for a time to address narcolepsy, ADHD, and other conditions. As its addictiveness and psychosis-inducing quality became more apparent, the drug has been banned in many countries. A robust illicit manufacturing of the drug endures in the Middle East, especially in Syria and Lebanon. Track locations where the drug has been seized on this updated map.

Watch a 1986 television special about the discovery of the ozone hole

The groundbreaking discovery of the Antarctic ozone hole in the mid-1980s marked a critical turning point, galvanizing international action to address the ozone-depleting properties of chlorofluorocarbons, which had been identified about a decade earlier. This environmental crisis was brought vividly to public attention through media pieces like this one.

The US embargo on Cuba was designed to cause hardship and eventual regime change

A secret 1960 memo by State Department official Lester Mallory argued that trade restrictions were “the only foreseeable means” to unseat Castro by provoking hunger and desperation. This page compiles declassified US documents detailing that strategy and its aftermath.

US intelligence allegedly pursued more than 600 schemes to assassinate Fidel Castro

From exploding cigars and poisoned Cohibas to an infected scuba suit and plans to drug a TV studio with LSD, this account catalogs the CIA's strangest—and consistently unsuccessful—attempts to kill Fidel Castro over decades.

How America's cocaine habit fueled its migrant crisis

The United States has been facing a migration crisis along its southern border. Thousands of people have been fleeing their homes in Central America, traveling north through Mexico, and claiming asylum in the USA. Much of this crisis can be traced...

In 1985, New York Mets star Keith Hernandez said 40% of his MLB peers used cocaine, highlighting an open secret about drug use in the league.

From 1970 to 2017, invasive species have caused $1.28T in damage globally

The costliest species were the Asian tiger and yellow fever mosquitoes ($149B), which arrived in the US from Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, respectively. The bulk of their damage came from their transmission of diseases such as Zika, chikungunya, and dengue. (Some readers may experience a paywall.)

There's a myth that Al Capone coined the term 'money laundering,' or the process of disguising the criminal origins of illegally obtained money so it can be used without detection.

Visualize how Coca-Cola's secret formula has changed over time

Coca-Cola contained small amounts of cocaine until the early 1900s—but that's not the only time Coca-Cola has altered its recipe over the years. For instance, Coca-Cola transitioned from cane sugar to high-fructose corn syrup in the 1980s.

The Stepan Company is the only US company with legal permission to import coca leaves

The Stepan Company works closely with Coca-Cola so that the soda giant can continue to use coca leaves for its beverages. Today, the cocaine from the coca leaves is removed before they are used to create Coca-Cola.

A Russian ban on food from outside countries has created a black market that's led the government to sometimes burn contraband food on state TV.

What is Captagon, the addictive drug mass-produced in Syria?

Diplomatic discussions among Arab countries have recently featured Captagon – the addictive, amphetamine-type stimulant mass-produced in Syria and smuggled to the Gulf states. Relatively unknown outside of the Middle East, Captagon was once the...

An interactive investigation into drugs and migration in San Francisco

This interactive article investigates the connection between the boom in US migration from Honduras and drug dealing in San Francisco. A high concentration of Hondurans are fleeing Siria Valley, where poverty and national murder rates run high...

How cigarettes took over China

In 2022, China had a fifth of the world's population and bought nearly half of the world's cigarettes. This investigation explores how China became plagued by tobacco consumption, something epidemiologists say will strain the country's health system...

Fast, cheap, and deadly: How fentanyl replaced heroin and hooked America

This interactive article details how fentanyl has largely replaced heroin in the drug trade, with fatal results. Fentanyl was first developed in 1959 as an anesthetic for pain relief, but the drug took hold in the US black market in 2014 and has since exploded in the intervening decade.

Psychoactive drugs found in 1,000-year-old bag made of fox noses

Archaeologists in Bolivia have uncovered an ancient bag filled with "amazing goodies" that suggests the owner or owners were well-versed in the properties of psychoactive substances and sourced goods from well-established trade routes. This article details the findings, which shed light on how ancient peoples in the region consumed and obtained psychoactive substances.

Organized crime, including money laundering, drains $1.96T from the global economy annually

Overall, financial crime drains $3T from the global economy, with organized crime making up nearly $2T of that total. Drug trafficking is the second-largest drain on the global economy.