The abundance of raw materials may lead to sodium replacing lithium in batteries

Lithium-ion batteries are the standard for rechargeable devices

The costly setup of new mining operations and challenges with recycling amid growing demand have led researchers to search for alternatives, including sodium-ion, solid-state, and lithium-sulphur batteries, despite challenges with scalability.

Lithium can store and deliver substantial energy for its cost and weight

When exploring which compounds would be best suited for batteries, scientists sought elements that were relatively inexpensive to mine, readily available, and that provided high energy density—how much chemical energy an element could store for its size. Lithium-ion batteries provide these benefits and discharge at very low rates when unused.

Solid-state batteries substitute the fluid electrolyte layer with a solid

The non-flammable solid greatly reduces the risk of fire and explosion, as well as the release of toxic gases via leaks in the existing sulfide-based systems. These batteries use garnet-type solid electrolytes, which provide high ionic conductivity and chemical stability but require temperatures above 1,000 degrees Celsius (1,800 degrees Fahrenheit) for fabrication.

Legacy electronics have prevented significant advancements in alkaline batteries

While lithium-ion batteries have increased in energy density multiple times since their commercialization in 1991 and can be sized to various capacities by connecting numerous electrochemical cells, disposable alkaline batteries have been forced to maintain their 1.5-volt standard and form factors for compatibility with existing devices.

The benefits of 3D printing batteries, from safety to sustainability

Rather than using the liquid electrolyte commonly found in lithium-ion batteries, 3D-printed batteries would use a solid layer, which can be custom-built into different shapes, deliver higher energy density by building thinner layers, and be fabricated with fewer raw materials compared to injection molding.

The widespread need for rechargeable batteries has fueled surging lithium demand

As of 2025, the average person uses 27 times more mined lithium than they did in the 1990s, with the US ranking second globally in consumption despite producing less than 1% of global supply. However, potential alternative materials and boom-and-bust cycles have challenged the profitability of mines and future demand for the mineral.

How lithium has become one of the world's most important elements

Lithium is the driving force behind electric vehicles as the key element in the lithium-ion batteries that power the cars. But as demand for EVs rises, will global lithium supply keep pace with demand? This report projects demand will reach up to four million metric tons of the mineral compound containing lithium by 2030, with batteries accounting for 95% of end-use applications.

Explore options for recycling batteries

Improper battery disposal can lead to fires and the leaching of harmful chemicals and toxic materials into local soil and water systems. Although many batteries contain metals that can be recycled with less energy than it takes to produce them, variability in regulations across municipalities and states can complicate efforts. (Some readers may experience a paywall.)

As of 2022, only about 5% of lithium-ion batteries are recycled globally

Traditional recycling methods have been inadequate for lithium batteries, prompting manufacturers to explore more sustainable battery designs, alongside robotic disassembly and ultrasonic techniques to improve recycling rates. Studies have shown that mining for new lithium requires significantly more water and energy than recycling and results in declining vegetation near mines.

Visualize the minerals used in a lithium-ion battery

The lithium cathode includes nickel to increase energy storage per unit volume, as well as cobalt and manganese as stabilizing agents. Anodes are composed entirely of graphite, with aluminum and copper composing the current collectors for the cathode and anode, respectively. The battery is enclosed in a steel casing.

Batteries range in size based on their purpose, cost, and manufacturability

Lead-acid batteries used in combustion vehicles are resilient to temperature extremes, low-cost, and provide high surge current, which is needed for initial ignition. Alkaline batteries, including AA, AAA, and B, have long shelf lives and supply the low, steady power required for electronics with minimal demand fluctuations.

From 1991 to 2024, lithium-ion battery cell prices have fallen by 99%

The decrease from about $10,000 to $50 per kilowatt-hour has been driven by innovations in battery chemistry, improvements in manufacturing and supply chains, and increases in global cumulative production, which have caused average price declines of 19% each time it has doubled.

Chile, Argentina, and Bolivia hold more than 75% of the world’s supply of lithium

Despite the dependence of phones, laptops, electric cars, and other technologies on the soft, silvery-white metal for their batteries, residents of the Lithium Triangle have not seen the benefits of investments into mining this critical mineral, and have instead faced water shortages and pollution.

Clean energy technologies are more mineral-intensive than burning fossil fuels

Solar panels use silver due to its high conductivity, hydropower plants use chromium in their steel alloys, and geothermal plants need titanium to withstand abundant heat and pressure. Lithium—used in energy storage—is expected to see over 500% increased demand from 2020 to 2025.

View the five most expensive metals used to make batteries

Before 2021, when lithium carbonate became the most expensive metal for use in electric vehicle cathodes, cobalt was the most costly battery metal. Of the top five, copper is the only metal not used in cathodes, arguably the most important part of the battery, which determines performance, longevity, and range.

Growing EV adoption requires battery management infrastructure

Despite rechargeable batteries' limited life cycle, companies like Spiers New Technologies have developed methods to repair, refurbish, repurpose and recycle these components to minimize environmental waste, lower demand for new critical minerals, and increase electric vehicle lifetimes.

Thermal runaway reactions can cause batteries to catch fire or explode

If a lithium-ion battery is heated, punctured, crushed, or short-circuits due to manufacturing flaws or degradation, the cathode and anode can make contact without the resistance provided by a circuit. The ensuing spike in chemical reactions increases the temperature and can release oxygen, initiating and intensifying burning of the battery's interior.

During manufacturing, lithium-ion and alkaline batteries are tested for short-circuiting

Lithium-ion batteries are made by manufacturing anodes, cathodes, and electrolytes via chemical processes, assembling these components into cells, and enclosing multiple interconnected cells within a protective casing. Disposable alkaline battery production involves filling steel containers with preforms—rings of powdered cathode material—paper-based separators, electrolyte solution, and an anode gel.

How to safely dispose of every kind of battery

As lithium-ion batteries have proliferated in phones, e-bikes, power tools, and dozens of other devices, improper disposal has become a leading cause of fires in recycling facilities and garbage trucks. Battery Safety Now partnered with the US Forest Service's Woodsy Owl campaign to provide guidance on how to recycle batteries by type, including locator tools for drop-off sites.

The first lithium-ion battery was invented at ExxonMobil

Initially a side project that became a priority due to the 1973 oil crisis, the battery's flammability risks and manufacturing challenges, along with the waning crisis, led the company to shut down its battery program. Other researchers would gradually improve upon published prototype designs in the next decade.

Sony set the standard for cylinder-shaped batteries when it repurposed manufacturing equipment used to make rolls of magnetic recording tape.

Watch how metals are extracted from rechargeable devices during recycling

Recyclable batteries found in cars, phones, power tools, and other electronics contain lithium, cobalt, nickel, and other precious metals, whose reuse generates 70% fewer emissions than during their initial mining. Upon shredding these devices, a filter press squeezes the pieces through a proprietary fluid, which separates them for future reuse.

Sand 'batteries' can store excess electricity from the power grid as thermal energy

Energy collected from solar or wind power is used to heat insulated silos full of sand to temperatures as high as 450 degrees Celsius (842 degrees Fahrenheit), which can be retained for long periods. These thermal energy storage systems can be designed to boil water and generate electricity when needed.

Gradual chemical build-up reduces the effectiveness of rechargeable batteries

During charge cycles, small chemical deposits gradually form a film on the electrodes where they make contact with the electrolyte, trapping ions that would otherwise facilitate the flow of electricity. Mechanical degradation from electrode wear and electrical shorting from structural instability can also reduce battery capacity.

The gradual loss of capacity in rechargeable batteries can be delayed by avoiding overnight charging, charging to 100%, fast charging, and exposing your device to excessive heat.

Batteries are likely to stop working sooner in cold temperatures

The electrolyte separating the cathode and anode of a battery can thicken, impeding ion flow. Lower temperatures also slow the rate of chemical reactions, further reducing battery capacity. Large draws of power, such as when using heaters, heated seats, etc., in a car during winter, exacerbate battery drain further.

The 2019 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded for lithium-ion battery development

Stanley Whittingham developed the first functional lithium battery in the early 1970s, while John Goodenough doubled its electrical potential in 1980 by replacing the cathode, thereby enhancing its commercial viability. Five years later, Akira Yoshino developed an anode using carbon material, reducing the risk of flammability.

More batteries in the power grid would create an on-demand energy reservoir

Most power grids are inefficient because they require enough generation capacity at all times to avoid blackouts. This means at any given time, as much as 50% of generating capacity at power plants can go unused. Batteries would reduce this inefficiency and allow for real-time adjustments.

A visual exploration of the environmental impacts and uncertain demand for deep-sea mining

While models suggest demand for crucial metals is expected to exceed supply through 2050, new battery technologies, such as those that require no nickel or cobalt, introduce uncertainty that opponents of deep-sea mining see as not worth the risk of certain environmental damage, which includes noise and light pollution and the release of toxic plumes from mining equipment.

Pollution from lead battery recycling has led to widespread contamination

Many small-scale operations worldwide remain unregulated, bypassing environmental regulations and causing increasing health threats, primarily to children. A 2020 report by UNICEF found that one-third of the world's children are being poisoned by lead from recycled batteries, among other sources.

The world's largest lemon battery was made from nearly 3,000 lemons

By connecting lemons with a piece of zinc on one side and a piece of copper on the other, a team from the Royal Society of Chemistry created a fruit battery with a capacity of 2,307.8 volts.

Explore the human and environmental resources needed to make an electric vehicle

The minerals needed to build batteries for electric vehicles are expensive and often take a human toll paid by the communities where they are mined. This interactive article details what minerals make up an electric vehicle battery, where they come from, and dangers posed by the mining process.

Nuclear batteries generate electrical currents using radioactive materials

Rather than using electrochemical reactions to produce the electrons that flow through a circuit, isotopes like nickel-63 undergo beta decay—emitting electrons—which a semiconducting material can absorb to establish a charge imbalance that generates current. Such batteries could provide low-power energy for decades.

Accidental ingestion of batteries can be life-threatening

Tissue in the body can serve as a circuit path between the anode and cathode of a battery, resulting in electrical burns and gradual tissue erosion. Stomach acid can corrode a battery and cause its toxic contents to leak, making a person sick. Batteries for internal use, such as in pacemakers, require special designs.

An overview of the metals obtainable through deep-sea mining of nodules and crusts

Polymetallic nodules are a source of manganese, cobalt, nickel, copper, molybdenum, and platinum, which are used in batteries, fuel cells, and metal alloys of electric vehicles. Seamount crusts contain rare-earth elements deemed essential to US national and economic security, including neodymium and dysprosium used to make permanent magnets.

All clean energy technologies rely heavily on critical minerals

Although many of these minerals have been used for decades, such as copper in electrical wiring, the accelerating demand for them has strained existing extraction and processing systems. Supply chain disruptions for these materials may delay and increase the cost of transitioning to solar, wind, hydroelectric, and geothermal power.

As of 2025, most EV batteries retain 95% or more of their range after three years

Data from over 30,000 electric vehicles shows that their batteries are lasting much longer than initially projected, which researchers suggest is due to improved battery management systems and real-world use often being less rigorous than high-performance testing. Cars with 150,000 miles or more that have not had a battery replacement retain at least 83% of their original range.

Weird ways critical minerals are being mined

Critical minerals like lithium, cobalt, and graphite are economically crucial non-fuel resources subject to supply chain risks. To diversify production, scientists developed odd ways to harvest them. This article breaks down the weirdest approaches, including extracting minerals from seawater using algae, phytomining plants, and asteroids.

Salt is harvested from briny ocean water and underground deposits

Mostly sodium chloride, this compound is produced for human use by collecting seawater in shallow pans and allowing the Sun to evaporate the water until crystals remain. Underground rock salt is mined, crushed, and purified from deposits left behind by ancient seas that have dried-up.

Genetically modified viruses can help construct battery electrodes

MIT scientists' modifications caused the viruses to attract conductive materials, such as gold ions, which the viruses self-assembled into nanowires that could be used in batteries. These components allow batteries to be thinner and flexible enough to be constructed into new shapes.

Benjamin Franklin described a series of static electricity storage jars as 'batteries'

Discovered over 50 years before the first electrochemical cell was invented, Leyden jars stored electric charge between the metals inside and outside a liquid-filled container. Franklin was the first to use the term "battery" in an electrical sense, though his multiple-jar device—lacking chemical reactions—was actually a series of capacitors.

Beyond critical minerals, copper is emerging as a bottleneck to clean energy

Copper remains invaluable for the transmission of electricity needed in energy infrastructure projects, with 90% of the average circuit board made of the element. However, limited smelting capacity and low ore quality amid increasing demands are stressing global supplies.

Why it's so hard to end the use of toxic lead

Lead was one of the earliest metals mined on Earth, desired for its soft malleability and used in cosmetics, pipework, gasoline, and more. But even though researchers demonstrated its toxicity in the 20th century, much of the world still uses it.

Tesla plans to eliminate the use of rare earth elements in future vehicles

At a 2023 Investor Day event, Elon Musk outlined steps to focus Tesla's efforts on climate action rather than new vehicle models. Musk estimates the transition to carbon-free, sustainable energy will cost $10T.

Why everyone is racing to get rare earth minerals

Rare earth minerals are crucial for high-tech electronics and transitioning to new energy sources. China currently dominates rare earth processing capacity, but the US is seeking to increase its mineral production by using its geopolitical influence to strike international mineral agreements with nations like Ukraine.

Most of the critical mineral supply needed for US data centers is imported

The country with the most data centers relies on other nations for about 80% of the rare earth elements needed for magnetic materials in storage drives, 64% of the silver and 85% of the platinum it uses for electrical circuitry, and about half the aluminum and copper used in heat sinks that dissipate thermal energy from electronic components.

Electricity is produced when the ends of a battery are connected by a conducting wire, triggering chemical reactions that release the energy stored in chemical bonds.

Explore a series of articles on the costs of critical mineral extraction

The acquisition of critical minerals—essential materials for clean energy technologies—has often been accompanied by harm to water supplies, natural ecosystems, and Indigenous lands, raising questions about the overall benefit of these technologies.

Rare earth elements may be extracted from mine waste and coal ash

Rather than focusing solely on new mining operations, which can take decades to establish, some startups are developing methods to extract these metals from the toxic waste of existing operations and thereby minimize environmental impacts. (Some readers may experience a paywall.)

Geothermal power can reduce the dangerous mining of rare earth elements

Geothermal brines—mineral-rich underground fluids extracted for use in geothermal plants—contain small concentrations of REEs that can be recovered after energy generation. Although researchers suggest that this retrieval requires complex extraction methods at a significant scale to account for high flow rates, the chemical processes also occur in traditional REE processing.